Practical PhysicsThis book sets out to demonstrate the purpose and critical approach that should be made to all experimental work in physics. It does not describe a systematic course in practical work. The present edition retains the basic outlook of earlier editions, but modifications have been made in response to important changes in computational and experimental methods in the past decade. The text is in three parts. The first deals with the statistical treatment of data, and here the text has been extensively revised to take account of the now widespread use of electronic calculators. The second deals with experimental methods, giving details of particular experiments that demonstrate the art and craft of the experimenter. The third part deals with such essential matters as keeping efficient records, accuracy in arithmetic, and writing good, scientific English. Copyright © Libri GmbH. All rights reserved. |
Contents
The object of practical physics | 1 |
lntroduction to errors | 5 |
22 Systematic and random errors | 6 |
23 Systematic errors | 8 |
31 Introduction | 9 |
32 Set of measurements | 10 |
34 Estimation of o and om | 14 |
35 The Gaussian distribution | 18 |
92 Checking the obvious | 118 |
93 Personal errors | 119 |
95 Working out results | 121 |
96 Design of apparatus | 122 |
Record of the experiment | 125 |
103 Recording measurements | 126 |
105 Diagrams | 127 |
106 Tables | 129 |
36 The integral function | 19 |
37 The error in the error | 22 |
Summary of symbols nomenclature and important formulae | 24 |
Exercises | 26 |
4 Further topics in statistical theory | 27 |
42 The straight line method of least squares | 30 |
43 The straight line points in pairs | 36 |
44 Weighting of results | 37 |
squares | 39 |
Exercises | 41 |
51 Error calculations in practice | 43 |
52 Complicated functions | 46 |
53 Errors and experimental procedure | 48 |
Summary of treatment of errors | 50 |
Exercises | 51 |
Some laboratory instruments and methods | 55 |
63 Micrometer screw gauge | 57 |
64 Measurement of length choice of method | 58 |
65 Measurement of length temperature effect | 61 |
66 The beat method of measuring frequency | 62 |
67 Negative feedback amplifier | 64 |
68 Servo systems | 67 |
69 Natural limits of measurement | 69 |
Exercises | 71 |
Some experimental techniques | 73 |
72 Measurement of resistivity | 79 |
73 Absolute measurement of the acceleration due to the Earths gravity | 86 |
74 Measurement of frequency and time | 94 |
75 The Global Positioning System | 98 |
Exercises | 101 |
Experimental logic 81 Introduction | 102 |
83 Sequence of measurements | 103 |
84 Intentional and unintentional changes | 104 |
85 Drift | 105 |
86 Systematic variations | 106 |
87 Calculated and empirical corrections | 109 |
88 Relative methods | 111 |
89 Null methods | 113 |
810 Why make precise measurements? | 114 |
Common sense in experiments | 117 |
107 Aids to clarity | 130 |
108 Some common faults ambiguity and vagueness | 131 |
Graphs | 133 |
112 Choice of ruling | 137 |
114 Units | 138 |
116 Indicating errors | 141 |
117 Sensitivity | 142 |
Arithmetic | 144 |
123 Calculators | 145 |
125 Checking algebra | 148 |
Exercises | 150 |
Writing a paper | 152 |
134 Plan of paper | 153 |
136 Diagrams graphs and tables | 155 |
138 Clarity | 156 |
1310 Conclusion | 158 |
Evaluation of some integrals connected with the Gaussian function | 161 |
The variance of s2 for a Gaussian distribution | 164 |
The straight line the standard error in the | 166 |
Comment on the dependence of m c and b | 170 |
The binomial and Poisson distributions | 171 |
Poisson distribution | 173 |
The x2 distribution test of goodness of fit | 176 |
Derivation of x2 distribution | 177 |
The function Pn2 | 180 |
Degrees of freedom | 181 |
Test of goodness of fit | 182 |
Worked examples | 184 |
Comments | 186 |
F Sl units | 188 |
names and symbols | 189 |
Decimal factors | 190 |
Definitions of the SI base units | 191 |
G Valuse of physical constants | 192 |
H Mathematical tables | 193 |
Solutions to exercises | 196 |
Some useful books | 206 |
References | 207 |
| 209 | |
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Common terms and phrases
amplitude apparatus arithmetic atomic atomic clocks average beam best line best value binomial distribution C₁ caesium Calculate the value calibrated clock consider constant correct device diagram digits effect electron equal equation estimate example experiment final error fringe Gaussian distribution give given Global Positioning System graph instrument integral known laboratory large number least squares length light lock-in amplifier magnetic mean measured values method of least metre neutron Newton's rings object obtained optical oscillation output pairs plot Poisson distribution precision primary quantities probability R₁ random errors range readings reduce refractive index relation resistance rotation sample satellites scale servo system set of measurements shown in Fig signal slope standard deviation standard error Suppose systematic error T₁ Table temperature theoretical theory true value tube units V₁ variation varies viscosity voltage wavelength weights x₁ y₁ zero