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urged against them. Locke's second letter, published in 1690, and third, a work of some length, in 1692, both signed “ Philanthropus," were replies to the objections actually raised by theologians of Queen's College, Oxford, in three letters, of which the first was entitled, "The Argument of the Letter concerning Toleration briefly Considered and Answered."

Locke's argument for religious liberty, in 1689, was followed by his argument also for civil liberty. In 1689 and 1690 he published "Two Treatises of Government;" one opposed to the arguments of Sir Robert Filmer in his Patriarcha," which had appeared in 1680, and was applauded by upholders of the absolute supremacy of kings; the other "An Essay concerning the true Original, Extent, and End of Civil Government."

They were described by him as the beginning and end of a discourse concerning government, and he hoped “sufficient to establish the throne of our great restorer, our present King William; to make good his title, in the consent of the people, which being the only one of all lawful governments, he has more fully and clearly than any prince in Christendom; and to justify to the world the people of England, whose love of their just and natural rights, with their resolution to preserve them, saved the nation when it was on the very brink of slavery and ruin." He should not, he said, have replied to Sir Robert "were there not men amongst us, who, by crying up his books and espousing his doctrine, save me from the reproach of writing against a déad adversary." Sir Robert based his plea for absolute monarchy upon the argument that men are not naturally free. They are born in subjection to their parents, and imperial authority is based on patriarchal. Absolute lordship was vested in Adam, inherited from him by the patriarchs. A son, a subject, and a servant or slave, were one and the same thing at first. This argument was combated by Locke in his first Treatise; and in the second he set forth what he believed to be the real basis of civil government. "Political power," he said, "I take to be a right of making laws with penalties of death, and, consequently, all less penalties, for the regulating and preserving of property, and of employing the force of the community in the execution of such laws, and in the defence of the commonwealth from foreign injury, and all this only for the public good." Men, he said, are by nature subject only to the laws of nature, born equal and free. But the state of liberty is not a state of license. Reason is one of the laws of nature, and it teaches that, if men are all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions. Next to the preservation of himself, the natural law wills that each shall aid in the preservation of the rest of mankind; and into

every man's hand is put the execution of such natural law on those who molest their neighbors, as far as reason allows that power may be used to prevent recurrence of offence, or secure reparation for the injury. In this state of nature, Locke argued, all men are, until by their own consent they make themselves members of some political society. Paternal power is the right and duty of guiding children till they reach maturity, because they are not, as soon as born, under the law of reason, and this has no analogy with the social compact. A civil society is formed when any number of men agree to form a government that shall maintain and execute laws for avoidance of those evils which lie in the state of nature, where every man is judge in his own case. Absolute monarchy, said Locke, is no form of civil government at all; for the end of civil society is to avoid the inconveniences of a state of nature, and that is not done by setting up a man who shall be always judge in his own case, and therefore himself in the state of nature in respect of those under his dominion. In this work, Locke gave philosophical expression to the principles established practically by the English Revolution.

Locke's "Essay concerning Human Understanding,” in Four Books, was first published complete in 1690. Its object was to lead men out of the way of vain contention by showing, through an inquiry into the nature of the human understanding, what are the bounds beyond which argument is vain. In his First Book he followed into a new field Bacon's principles, and maintained that man has no innate ideas, but is created with a receptive mind and reason, whereby he draws knowledge from the universe without. In his Second Book, Locke traced the origin of our ideas from the world about us by sensation or reflection, and argued that our most complex thoughts are formed by various combinations of simple ideas derived from the world about us, suggested to the mind only by sensation and reflection, and the sole materials of all our knowledge. The Third Book was a distinct essay upon words as signs of ideas, and enforced the importance of assuring that, as far as possible, they shall be made to represent clearly the same impressions in the minds of those who use them, and of those to whom they are addressed. Thus two men might argue without end upon the question whether a bat be a bird, if they had no clear and equal notion of the collection of simple ideas forming the complex idea of a bat, whereby they could ascertain whether it contained all the simple ideas

to which, combined together, they both give the name of bird. The Fourth Book of the Essay applied the whole argument to a consideration of the bounds of knowledge and opinion. Knowledge can extend no farther than we have ideas, and is the perception of the connection and agreement or disagreement and repugnancy of any of our ideas. What is deducible from human experience God enabled us by reason to discover. What lies beyond our experience may be the subject of a revelation, which is above reason, but not against it. Locke ended with a threefold division of the objects of human knowledge 1, Study of nature, in the largest sense a man's contemplation of things themselves for the discovery of truth; 2, Practical applications, a man's contemplation of the things in his own power for the attainment of his ends; and, 3, Man's contemplation of the signs (chiefly words) that the mind makes use of, both in the one and the other, and the right ordering of them for its clearer information. "All which three," said Locke, “viz., things, as they are in themselves knowable; actions, as they depend on us in order to happiness; and the right use of signs in order to knowledge, being 'toto cœlo' different, they seemed to me to be the three great provinces of the intellectual world, wholly separate and distinct one from another." In this Essay, and in his two letters to Stillingfleet, Bishop of Worcester, in the course of the controversy raised over it, the simple piety of Locke is very manifest. The reason of Locke caused him to maintain "that we more certainly know that there is a God than that there is any thing else without us." Locke had finished, in March, 1690, "Some Thoughts concerning Education," published in 1693, a treatise wisely designed to bring experience and reason to aid in right training of the bodies and minds of children. It is very practical, beginning with the education that may form a healthy body, passing then to a consideration of the right methods of influencing and guiding the mind, the relation of parents to the children, who must not be hindered from being children, or from playing, or doing as children, but from doing ill;" relation of teachers to the young, development of character, subjects and methods of formal study, and the ordering of travel. The

influence of Locke's treatise on education was direct and wholesome; and to this day, among sensible customs and traditional opinions that help to the well-being of an English or an American home, there are generally some that may be traced back to the time when Locke's treatise on education was a new book with a living power over many of its readers.

In 1695 Locke published a book on "The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures," the result of his endeavor to turn aside from contending systems of theology and betake himself to the sole reading of the Scripture for the understanding of the Christian religion. Out of the same spirit came his study of St. Paul in "A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, Corinthians, Romans, Ephesians. To which is prefixed, An Essay for the Understanding of St. Paul's Epistles, by consulting St. Paul himself." This was published in 1705, the year after his death. In 1706 appeared some posthumous works of his, the chief being an essay "Of the Conduct of the Understanding," the self-education of the man in learning to make right use of his mind, which has its natural place between the "Essay concerning Human Understanding" and the "Thoughts concerning Education."

CHAPTER X.

SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY: HISTORIANS, BIOGRAPHERS, DIARISTS, AND ESSAYISTS.

1. Lord Clarendon.-2. Samuel Pepys.-3. John Aubrey.-4. Anthony à Wood.5. Gilbert Burnet.-6. Roger North.-7. John Strype.-8. Humphrey Prideaux.-9. John Evelyn.-10. Sir William Temple.-11. Marchamont Needham; Roger L'Estrange.-12. Jeremy Collier.-13. Gerard Langbaine.

1. Edward Hyde was made at the coronation of Charles II. Earl of Clarendon, having been Lord Chancellor since 1658. After his fall, in 1667, he went to France, and died at Rouen, in December, 1674. His "Brief View of the Pernicious Errors in Hobbes's Leviathan appeared two years after his death; but his "History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England, begun in the Year 1641," was first published at Oxford, in three folios, in 1702-4. Still later, in 1727, appeared in folio "A Collection of several Tracts of the Right Honourable Edward, Earl of Clarendon," containing his "Vindication" from the charge of high treason that closed his political career; "Reflections upon several Christian Duties, Divine and Moral, by way of Essays," all written after his fall; a Dialogue on Education," and a complete set of "Contemplations and Reflections on the Psalms of David.” The manuscripts of Clarendon's own "Account of his Life, from his Birth to the Restoration in 1660," and a Continuation from 1660 to 1667, written for the information of his children, were given by Clarendon's descendants to the university of which he had been chancellor, and were first published at Oxford in 1759. The "Continuation" serves at the same time as a continuation of the History of the Rebellion, Clarendon's life being as inseparable from the events in which he played a leading part as his history is inseparable from the bias of mind which determined his career.

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