upper house being allowed seven thalers, or about a guinea a day, during the sittings of parliament, and the deputies to the second chamber three thalers, or 9s. Both houses have the right to make propositions for new laws, the bills for which, however, must come from the ministry. No taxes can be made, levied, or altered without the sanction of both chambers.

in paper, of which the Saxon manufactures do not produce nearly enough for the immense consumption of the presses of Leipsic and Dresden. The extension of the cotton and woollen manufactures of Saxony, since 1833, is wholly, or almost wholly, ascribable to the circumstance of her having then joined the Zollverein, or German Commercial League. This opened a widely extended market for her products among the German states, from the greater number of which they had previously been either wholly excluded, or admitted only clandestinely, and under great difficulties. Saxony, in fact, has derived the greatest advantage from the league, much more, in pro-sation, degrade from office. The municipal officers, portion to her extent and population, than Prussia. Little or no cloth of Saxon manufacture has hitherto found its way to the United States.

how the produce shall be expended. In the election of the magistrates, every ratepayer has a vote. They are all salaried officers.

All towns elect their own municipalities, and are governed by laws of their own; while the rural districts are divided into departments, each of which has its own magistrates, whom the people not only choose, but may also, in case of malveralso, though elected by the citizens for life, are liable, on conviction of incapacity or unfair dealing, to be degraded. Their powers are very conThe extensive commercial relations of Saxony siderable in reference both to person and property, owe their origin to the enlightened policy of Fre- for they regulate the police, hear and determine derick Augustus, the elector, afterwards king of civil causes, and both fix the amount of local Saxony, who, at a time when protecting and pro-rates to be levied on the citizens, and determine hibitory tariffs surrounded his states, adopted a liberal commercial system, and converted Saxony, and especially Leipsic, into one of the most important marts, not merely for the supply of central and northern Europe, but part even of Asia, with all sorts of manufactured produce. The fairs at Leipsic were for a lengthened period the great sources whence Russia, as far as the borders of China, Poland, the provinces on the Danube, and many parts of the Turkish and Persian dominions, were supplied with manufactures; and though they have latterly declined, they still continue to be resorted to. Leipsic has been for a lengthened period the centre of the book trade of Germany, being, London and Paris only excepted, the greatest literary emporium in the world.

Government. The present constitution of Saxony dates from September 4, 1881; but has undergone alterations and modifications by the laws of March 31, 1849; May 5, 1851; November 27, 1860; and October 19, 1861. According to the terms of the Constitution the crown is hereditary in the male line; but, at the extinction of the latter, also in the female line. The sovereign comes of age at the completed eighteenth year, and, during his minority, the nearest heir to the throne takes the regency. In the hands of the king is the sole executive power, which he exercises through responsible ministers. The legislature is jointly in the king and parliament, the latter consisting of two chambers. The upper chamber comprises the princes of the blood royal; the proprietors of eight baronial domains; twelve deputies elected by the owners of other nobiliar estates; ten noble proprietors nominated by the king for life; the burgomasters of eight towns; and the superintendents and deputies of five collegiate institutions, of the university of Leipzig, and of the Roman Catholic chapter of St. Peter at Bautzen. The lower chamber is made up of twenty deputies of landed proprietors; twentyfive of towns and city corporations; twenty-five of peasants and communes; and five representatives of commerce and manufacturing industry. The qualification for a seat in the upper house, as well as the right of election to the same, is the possession of a landed estate, worth at least 1,000 thalers a year; which qualification, however, is not required by the ex officio deputies of chapters and universities. To be a member of the lower house no fixed income is required; and electors are all men above twenty-five years of age who pay taxes, or contribute in any way to the public burdens. A salary is attached to the performance of the legislative functions; the members of the

There are civil and criminal courts in the cap. of each circle, and a high court of appeal in Dresden, in which latter all capital cases are tried. There are special military tribunals, a superior fiscal court, university court at Leipsic, mining tribunal at Freiburg, and patrimonial tribunals. The reigning family is Rom. Catholic, but there are not more than 29,000 Rom. Catholics in the kingdom, the great bulk of the pop. being Lutherans. Literature and the fine arts have flourished more in Saxony than in any other part of Germany; and there is scarcely any country in Europe where primary instruction is so widely diffused, the number of the individuals attending schools and other seminaries is said to be as high as one in six of the population. The university at Leipsic is the principal seminary.

Every male inhab. 20 years of age is, with certain exceptions, obliged to serve in the army for six years in time of peace, and for three years subsequently in the reserve corps. The armed force is extensive; it consists of 25,400 men, of whom 10,000 are privates under arms, besides the reserve corps of 3,000 more. This kingdom holds the 4th rank among the German states, having four votes in the full diet and one in committee, and furnishes a contingent of 20,000 men to the army of the Confed. Its public revenue amounted to 1,853,4527, in 1863, and the expenditure to the same sum.

The greater part of the railways of Saxony are state property, and a very considerable revenue, varying from 1,500,000 to 1,800,000 thalers, is derived from this source. The length of state railways, at the beginning of 1862, was 252 m., built at an expense of 42,657,000 thalers, or 6,398,5507. The value of the public domains, chiefly forests, was estimated, at the same date, at 25,241,393 thalers, or 3,786,2104,

The public debt amounted, in 1861, to 61,725,499 thalers, or 9,258,8251. The greater part of it is of ancient date, created by the connection of the electors of Saxony with the throne of Poland. The debt amounted, in 1764, to 29,028,425 thalers; it had fallen, in 1806, to 14,932,885 thalers, but risen again, at the end of the Napoleonic wars, in 1815, to 22,857,626 thalers. It was settled at the congress of Vienna, when about one-half of the territory of Saxony was made over to Prussia, that the latter should also take a portion of the public debt. The amount left to Saxony was 16,660,771 thalers. This debt had increased, in 1830, to 18,762,050 thalers, and thenceforth aug

mented in still larger proportions, owing mainly to the establishment of a network of state railways, built at a cost of 42,657,000 thalers.

The Saxons are among the best specimens of the old Teutonic race. In person they bear a striking resemblance to the English agricultural pop. The Saxon royal family is said to be descended from Witichind, sovereign of this territory in the time of Charlemagne.

Saxony was created an electorate in 1422, which title it retained till 1806, when Napoleon erected it into a kingdom. During the war the king of Saxony was, from the battle of Jena downwards, a firm ally of Napoleon, who made extensive additions to his dominions; and he did not abandon the fortunes of his benefactor till after the battle of Leipsic had compelled the French to evacuate Germany. This conduct led to the dismemberment of the kingdom by the treaty of Vienna in 1815; some of its most valuable provinces were then assigned to Prussia, and, but for the opposition of Austria, it is probable that Saxony would then have ceased to exist as a separate state.

handsomest and most classical building belonging to the town is the museum, a rotunda 374 ft. in diameter, by 50 ft. in height, in the Roman Doric style. It is constructed of the Kelloway limestone, and, though of recent erection, has a valuable collection of specimens illustrative of the geology and natural history of the N. riding. A fine iron bridge of four arches, supported on massive stone piers, 70 ft. in height, has been thrown across a ravine to connect the higher town with the spa,m. to the S. This handsome structure, which cost 9,000l., raised by subscription, was completed in 1828. The par. church, which was given by Richard I. to the abbey of Citeaux, in Burgundy, stands on an eminence not far from the ruins of the castle: it was formerly much larger than at present; but the part now used is commodiously fitted up for divine worship. Christchurch, built in 1828, in the early English style, has accommodation for 1,300 persons. There are three other churches, and places of worship for Rom. Catholics, Wesleyan, Primitive and Association Methodists, Independents, Baptists, and the Society of Friends, to most of which, as well as to all the churches, are attached well-attended Sunday schools. A grammar school, founded in the 9th century, is but slenderly endowed; but there are several good subscription schools, including two of the National and one on the Lancastrian plan. The Amicable Society also clothes and educates between 70 and 80 boys and girls. A seaman's hospital is under the government of the Trinity House, and there are almshouses, and several other benevolent, as well as religious institutions.

SAXONY, a prov. of the Prussian states, consisting of the territories dismembered from the kingdom of Saxony in 1815, with the Saxon states formerly belonging to Prussia, has on the NE. and E. Brandenburg, S. the kingdom of Saxony and the Thuringian states, and on the W. Hesse, Brunswick, and Hanover. It is of a very irregular outline, has several enclaves, and includes within its frontiers the independent principalities of Anhalt, Sondershausen, &c. Area, 9,765 sq. m. Pop. 1,975,932 in 1861. The prov. is divided into three regencies, and these again The harbour, which is easy of access, is prointo 41 circles. Principal towns, Magdeburg, tected by two handsome piers, of modern erection; Halle, Erfurth, Merseburg, Naumburg, and Burg. but it labours under a deficiency of water, having The Hartz mountains lie on the W. frontier of the only from 4 ft. to 5 ft. at low ebb springs, and prov.; but, with this exception, there are no hills from 8 ft. to 9 ft. at low ebb neaps; but from first of any considerable magnitude. Principal rivers, quarter flood to last quarter ebb vessels drawing the Elbe and its affluent, the Saale, Mulda, Un- 8 ft. water may enter the harbour with safety. A strut. Soil in parts sandy and unproductive, but small foreign and pretty considerable coasting in general loamy and fertile. The plain of Mag- trade is carried on. On the 1st of January, 1864, deburg is reckoned the best land in Prussia, and there belonged to the port 109 sailing vessels is very well cultivated. Principal products, wheat under 50, and 117 above 50 tons, besides one and other sorts of corn, flax and hemp, excellent steamer of 44 tons. The gross amount of customs' wool, and tobacco. The vine is cultivated in the duties was 3,4337, in 1863. A great deal of fish is neighbourhood of Merseburg and some other brought in here, and the fishery has greatly inplaces. Productive mines of coal, iron, and rock-creased since the railway has afforded a ready salt are wrought in different parts of the province. access to the populous districts and great manuThe stock of sheep exceeds 2,000,000 head, and facturing towns in the W. Riding. Of late years wool, which has been vastly improved by crossing several persons have embarked in the herring with Merinos and other fine-woolled breeds, has fishery, which is becoming an important and probecome a staple product. Manufactures important fitable source of employment to the fishermen. and valuable, consisting of fine woollens, linens, From 40 to 50 yawls belong at present to Scarearthenware and porcelain, and hardware. borough and Filey, in addition to the numerous small boats used for fishing in-shore; and it is not unusual for 150 or 200 boats to enter the harbour during the season, at the same tide, with herrings. As an encouragement to the fisheries, the corporation remit the tithe of fish to which they are entitled; and a society has been formed to raise an honorary fund, to meet the casual losses of nets, lines, and tackle of such provident fishermen as become subscribing members; and thus insuring to them, at a slight charge, an advantageous protection.

SCARBOROUGH, a sea-port, parl. and mun. bor., market town, and par. of England, N. riding, co. York, and E. div. of the wap. of Pickering Lythe, on a rocky slope, rising from an extensive bay, 35 m. NE. York, and 227 m. N. London by Great Northern railway. Pop. of bor., 18,377 in 1861. Area of parl. bor. (which includes, with the old bor, and par., the extra-parochial distr. of the castle), 2,160 acres. Scarborough has a very striking appearance from the sea, from which it rises amphitheatrewise to a considerable height. It is well built; the streets in the upper part of the town are spacious and well paved, and the houses generally have a handsome appearance. It is also extending ŚW. towards Falsgrave, and southward along the shore. The principal public buildings are the town-hall, trinity-house, news room, assembly-rooms, a neat and well-conducted theatre, a sea-bathing infirmary, many bathing establishments, and two public libraries. But the

Scarborough, in recent years, has gained for itself the name of the Brighton of Yorkshire.' There is annually a great concourse of visitors for the purposes of sea-bathing and amusement: they are principally of the middle classes, and from the manufacturing districts of Lancashire, Durham, and the W. riding of Yorkshire. Scarborough is, however, frequented not only for sea-bathing, but on account of its two mineral springs. Subjoined

is the result of the analysis of a gallon of water | E., being separated by the Rhine from the cantons from each spring.

It is probable that the spas may, from the growing reputation of the town, and their being so conveniently connected with it by the bridge above alluded to, again acquire some portion of that celebrity which they formerly enjoyed. The erection of a commodious saloon, in the castellated style, with embattled towers, the architectural beauty of the wells, the massive sea-wall, forming at once a secure protection to the spas and a delightful promenade, especially at high water, combined with the newly laid out ornamental walks and grounds, have materially increased the natural attractions of Scarborough as a watering-place.

of Zurich and Thurgau, while, on all other sides, it is surrounded by the territory of the Grand Duchy of Baden. Area, 116 sq. m. Pop. 35,646 in 1860. Surface undulating, its loftiest hill, the Raadenberg, in the N., rising only to about 1,200 ft. above the Rhine. The soil is generally calcareous, but fertile; and the climate is among the mildest in Switzerland. It is an agricultural rather than a manufacturing canton; and its agriculture has greatly improved within the last half century. Formerly the supply of corn was quite insufficient for home consumption; whereas, in good seasons, considerable quantities are now exported. Artificial pastures have also materially increased, as well as the number of cattle. Fruits are abundant, particularly cherries, from which a good deal of Kirschwasser is made; and the produce of timber is amply sufficient for the wants of the inhabs. There are nearly 5,000 arpents of vineyards, which furnish the principal article of export, wine being sent to St. Gall and Appenzell, the Black Forest, and other neighbouring districts; but of late years the competition of the wines of Baden, and the duties imposed on the Schaffhausen wines in Germany, have crippled the trade.

One of the principal branches of industry in Schaffhausen is the conveyance of goods through the canton, which is greatly facilitated by the navigation of the Rhine. Salt from Würtemberg, timber, and other goods are conveyed through Schaffhausen to Switzerland. The manufacturing establishments comprise a few cotton and hardware factories. Accounts are kept in florins, of 60 kreutzers, 20d. Eng. The foot is the same as that in Zurich; the lb. a little larger.

=

The canton is divided into twenty-four districts. The male inhabitants, of full age, and not bankrupts, paupers, or suffering a penal sentence, choose the legislative body. The latter, or grand council, consists of seventy-four members, twenty-four of whom form also the petty council, which is intrusted with most part of the executive power. The grand council meets in June every year, and is presided over by a burgomaster, who is changed annually. The pop, is wholly Protestant. Education is well attended to.

Scarborough, which received its first charter from Henry II. in 1252, is divided, under the Municipal Reform Act, into two wards, the government being vested in a mayor, five aldermen, and eighteen councillors. Corp. revenue, 3,6744. in 1862. Quarter sessions are held under a recorder, and petty sessions are held weekly both for the bor. and North Riding. The bor. has sent two mems, to the H. of C. since 23 Edward I., the right of election down to the Reform Act being in the common council of the bor., a body comprising forty-four individuals, The Boundary Act included with the old bor. the extra-parochial precinct of the castle. Registered electors, 1,317 in Schaffhausen was not included in ancient Hel1865. It is one of the polling-places at elections vetia, and its inhabitants resemble their Swabian for the N. riding, and the chief town of a poor-neighbours rather than the Swiss. It was adlaw union comprising thirty-three pars. Markets mitted into the Confederation in 1501. on Thursday and Saturday: cattle fairs, Holy Thursday and Nov. 23.

SCHAFFHAUSEN (originally Schiffhausen, or Ship-houses), a town of Switzerland, and the cap. N. of Scarborough, on a bold, craggy eminence, of the above canton, on the Rhine, 25 m. W. by commanding a very extensive sea-view, stand the N. Constance, and 49 m. ENE. Basle, on the railruins of a castle built in the reign of Stephen, way from Basle to Constance. Pop. 8,717 in 1860. to which Piers de Gaveston, the minion of Edward The town is walled, and defended by the Munoth, II., fled for refuge from the vengeance of the ex- an old citadel supposed to be of Roman origin, asperated barons. The castle, after sustaining two but which is now furnished with extensive bombsieges from the parliamentary troops, was dis- proof casemates. Streets ill paved, and the buildmantled at the close of the civil wars; and thoughings are remarkable for their quaint and antique a portion of it was repaired in 1745, and barracks have been subsequently built in its immediate vicinity, it is principally in ruins. The remains of the keep consist of a square tower nearly 100 ft. in height: the entire surface included within the outer walls comprises nearly 19 acres. A strong gateway still remains, with portions of the circular towers occurring at intervals in the line of the fortifications. It was, previously to the invention of artillery, one of the principal strongholds in the kingdom.

SCHAFFHAUSEN, the most N. canton of Switzerland; and, after Zug and Geneva, the smallest in the Confederation. It is between lat, 47° 40′ and 47° 50' N., and long. 8° 25′ and 8° 55'

architecture; many are ornamented in front with stucco, carved, and fresco work. The minster, founded in 1052, is a massive edifice in the round arched style, with numerous monuments in its cloisters. An ordinary bridge across the Rhine replaces that unique specimen of art consisting of one arch 364 ft. in length, destroyed by the French under Marshal Oudinot in 1709. Schaffhausen has a gymnasium, a college with nine professors, a high female school, and an excellent library. The latter comprises the books that belonged to the celebrated historian Müller, by far the most illustrious of the natives of Schaffhausen, where he first saw the light on the 3rd of January, 1752. The town is a principal depôt for the goods pass

Schaffhausen is supposed to have originated about the eighth or ninth century: it was subjected by Austria in 1330, but has been independent since 1415.

sing between Switzerland and Germany, and Basle | through the dép. du Nord, and the provs, of and Zurich, consisting of silk, cotton, and woollen Hainault and E. Flanders, to Antwerp, after which goods, raw cotton, colonial produce, Nuremberg it turns NNW., and, dividing into the E. and W. manufactures, and Swiss cheeses. Scheldt, which enclose the islands of Beveland and Walcheren, enters the North Sea in about the same lat. as the Thames. Its entire length is estimated at about 200 m., its breadth at Dendermond is about 650 ft., at Antwerp, 1,700 ft.; The celebrated falls of Schaffhausen are situated and the width of its mouth varies from 2 to 3 about a league SSW. from the town, where the leagues. It is navigable from Valenciennes. Its Rhine breaks through a ramification of the Black principal tributaries are the Scarpe, Lys, and Forest mountains. The height of these falls, Durme, on its W., and the Dender and Rupel on which, in some respects, are the grandest in its E. side. St. Quentin, Cambray, Valenciennes, Europe, varies, according to the season, from 50 to Tournay, Oudenarde, Ghent, and Antwerp are on 75 ft., being greatest in June and July, when the its banks. Its current is slow, and in the lower river is swollen by the melting of the snow on part of its course, where it runs through a comthe mountains. The stream, which, immediately pletely flat country, its banks are fenced by dykes above the fall, is about 300 ft. in width, precipi- to prevent inundation. It is connected by the tates itself over a ledge of limestone, four rocks canal of St. Quentin and other canals with the projecting from which divide it in its descent into Somme, Seine, and Loire, and with the principal five portions. The greatest body of water falls rivers and cities of Belgium, in its neighbourhood. between the first of these rocks and the castle of During the commercial ascendency of Antwerp Laufen, on the SE. bank of the river; from which the Scheldt enjoyed a larger share of traffic than the best view of the falls is obtained. It is not,' any other European river; but its importance in says Mr. Spencer (Germany and the Germans, ii. this respect, though still considerable, has since 61), the height of the fall, but the immense greatly declined. There was nothing,' says Barbody of water broken into spray in the most pic-row, (Tour in Holland) on this noble river, in turesque manner over the rocks, that constitutes the great beauty of the cataract. In other respects it cannot bear the slightest comparison with either those of Terni or the Staubbach.'

In 1790, Lord Montagu, a young British nobleman of great promise, was drowned in a rash attempt to descend these falls; and, by a curious coincidence, his death occurred nearly at the same time that his noble seat, Cowdrey House, near Midhurst, was burnt down.

SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE (PRINCIPALITY OF), one of the minor states of NW. Germany, principally between lat. 52° 10′ and 52° 30′ N., and about long. 9° E., surrounded by the territories of Hesse-Schaumburg, Hanover, and Prussian Westphalia, exclusive of some detached lordships enclosed in the territory of Lippe-Detmold. Area, 212 sq.m. Pop. 30,774 in 1861, mostly Lutherans, It is hilly towards its S. extremity, but flat in the N., where the lake called the Steinhuder Meer occupies about 11,000 morgen. The productive portion of the surface comprises about 74,000 morgen, besides nearly 34,000 morgen of forest land, chiefly in the W. The soil is in general superior to that of Lippe-Detmold, and agriculture and cattle-breeding are more advanced. The inhabs. of both principalities employ their intervals from rural labour in spinning flax and weaving linens. Coal is raised in the S. to the value of about 30,000 dollars a year; and forms, with corn, wool, timber, and linen goods, a principal article of export. The constitution, which dates from 1816, is a limited monarchy, the powers of the prince being similar to those of the sovereign of Great Britain; the landstände, or parliament, consisting of all the noble landed proprietors, with four deputies for towns, and six representatives of the peasantry. Appeal lies from the decisions of the courts of this principality to the superior court of Wolfenbuttel. Public instruction, as in Lippe-Detmold, is well attended to. Public revenue, 34,050l. in 1863. Schaumburg-Lippe has one vote in the full diet of the Germ. Confed., and, with Lippe-Detmold, Hohenzollern, Reuss, Waldeck, and Liechtenstein, the sixteenth place, with one vote in the committee. Its contingent to the army of the Confed. amounts to 350 men.

SCHELDT (Fr. Escaut), a river of France and Belgium, which rises in the dép. Aisne, near St. Quentin, and runs mostly in a NNE. direction,

our progress upwards, that conveyed any impression of an active or extensive commerce. In sailing up or down the Thames, or on approaching London within 4 or 5 m., the multitude of shipping affords indications not to be mistaken of the commercial wealth and prosperity of London. But the Scheldt, when we ascended it, was a vacant river; we neither met nor overtook a single sail; and, with the exception of 2 or 3 American ships, and some 10 or 12 small vessels, mostly brigs, there was little appearance of trade along the common quay of Antwerp.' This, however, was before the revolution of 1830 had made Antwerp once more the commercial emporium of Belgium; and in the interval the Scheldt has regained some portion of its former consideration.

SCHELESTADT, a fortified town of France, dép. Bas-Rhin, cap. arrond., on the Ill, a tributary of the Rhine, 26 m. SSW. Strasburg, on the railway from Strasburg to Basle. Pop. 9,414 in 1861. The town was fortified by Vauban, and is naturally strong from its being in a great measure surrounded by marshes. It has a hospital, prison, communal college, theatre, manufactures of cotton and linen fabrics, iron wire, soap, and earthenware, for which last it was famous as long ago as the 13th century, with breweries and distilleries. It is supposed to have been the ancient Elsebus, destroyed by Attila, where Charlemagne and his successors had afterwards a palace. The Swedes took it in 1632, but restored it to the French two years afterwards.

SCHEMNITZ (Hun. Selmeez-Banya), a famous mining town of Hungary, co. Honth, in a mountainous distr. on the Schemnitz, a tributary of the Gran, 46 m. N. by E. Gran. Pop. 13,720 in 1857. The town is entered by an old and strong gateway, which conducts to a long, narrow, steep street, wretchedly paved, and so hemmed in by sloping hills that there is scarcely room for a row of houses on either side. At the end of this street is a mountain amphitheatre, the proscenium of which is occupied by the churches and other large buildings, while the hill sides are covered with the white cottages of the miners embosomed among trees. The town has many good-looking houses, with shops and inns; but its fine old ruined castle is the only edifice of much interest.

The mines of Schemnitz, which extend under the town, and have been wrought for several cen

SCHWARTZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN

to occupy the site of an ancient Mohawk village, and was incorporated in 1798.

turies, furnish considerable quantities of silver, whence gold is again extracted. The ores vary greatly in productiveness; but, speaking generally, SCHIEDAM, a town and port of S. Holland, the mines have not been very profitable. There cap. cant., on the Schie, a tributary of the Maas, are 6 principal veins or courses, each from 10 to 3 m. W. Rotterdam, and 1 m. N. from the Maas. 20 fathoms in thickness, running nearly E. and Pop. 15,406 in 1861. Schiedam is well built in W. almost parallel to, and at the distance of from the usual style of Dutch towns, and has numerous 60 to 300 or 400 fathoms from each other, and churches, an exchange, a Latin school, a chamber connected by various small branches. In these of commerce and manufactures, and a branch of extensive courses there are 12 royal mines, besides the Society of Public Good. It is conspicuous,' a number belonging to private individuals, who says a traveller, both by the smoke which issues are obliged to dispose of all the ore they obtain to from the chimneys of its distilleries and the vast the royal smelting works at a fixed rate. The number of windmills by which it is environed. whole of these mines communicate with the em- The whole horizon, in fact, in the direction of peror Francis's adit or level, at the depth of nearly Schiedam, seems animated with life and bustle. 200 fathoms. At a still greater depth is the adit Schiedam is the chief seat of the manufacture of of Joseph II., a magnificent work, 12 mining ft. in Dutch gin, or Hollands. The quantity of that height by 10 ft. in breadth, extending from Schem- spirit produced here annually is very great, there nitz to the valley of the Gran, a distance of nearly being in the town as many as 100 distilleries, 10 Eng. m. This adit carries off the water from while many thousands of pigs are supported by the mines which cannot now be wrought, and is so refuse of the malt employed in the manufacture. constructed that it may be used either as a canal The gin of Schiedam is strong, but mild in flavour, or a railway. Dr. Clarke, who descended into the and is usually sold in Holland for 9d. a bottle, or mines of Schemnitz (Travels, viii. 393), says, 'All 4s. 6d. a gallon; the price of the gallon on its imthe imperial mines are connected with each other, portation into England being increased by freight offering, in their whole extent, a subterranean and duties to about 28s. or 30s.' Schiedam has passage which reaches to the astonishing length rope-walks, building-docks, and a small though of 3,000 fathoms, nearly 3 m.! The sight of the convenient port on the Schie. It sends 1 deputy interior of the Paquerstohln (one of the mines) to the states of the prov. convinced us that there are no mines in the world like those of Hungary. How wretched, in comparison, appear the mines of Cornwall and Wales, where it is sometimes necessary to creep upon the hands and knees, wet through, over all sorts of rubbish, to get from one shaft to another. The inside of a Hungarian mine may be compared to the interior arrangement of one of our best frigates, where space has been so husbanded, and cleanliness so strictly maintained, that nothing is seen out of its place, and there is room enough for every operation.' Dr. Clarke should, however, have added that the mines of Cornwall and Wales are wrought by private individuals for the sake of profit only, whereas the imperial mines which he visited are wrought at the expense of government, to which profit is a secondary consideration. The ore, besides silver and gold, contains lead, and sometimes iron, copper, zinc, or arsenic. In consequence of the want of wood and water, but little ore is smelted on the spot, being principally sent to Neusohl or Kremnitz. About 20,000 miners are employed in the Schemnitz district,

A school of mining, in imitation of that at Freiburg, was established at Schemnitz in 1760, which has 5 professors and about 200 students, who are all educated free of cost, several of them being also furnished with an annual donation of from 207, to 301., to assist in their maintenance.

SCHWABACH, a town of Bavaria, circ. Middle-Franconia, 9 m. SSW. Nuremberg, on the railway from Nuremberg to Augsburg. Pop. 6,611 in 1861. The town is walled, and pretty well built, having several Protestant churches, a synagogue, a mint, and a hospital. It is the seat of various manufactures, the principal being that of pins; but there are others of hosiery, hats, gold and silver lace, tobacco, paper, printing types, and Jews' harps. It owes its distinction as a manufacturing town to the influx of emigrants from France, after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, SCHWARTZBURG-RUDOLSTADT, a principality of Central Germany, between lat. 50° 30′ and 51° N., and about 11° W. long., inclosed by the territorities of Saxe-Weimar, Coburg, Meiningen, and Hildburghausen. Area, 340 sq. m. Pop. 71,913 in 1861, mostly Lutherans. It comprises a portion of the N. declivity of the Thuringian forest mountains, and is watered by the Schwartza, Ilm, and Saale. It does not yield sufficient corn for home consumption; timber and salt are its principal products. Iron, and a few other metals, are found; and woollen clothes, earthenware, glass, and other kinds of goods are manufactured. Since 1821 the government has been a limited monarchy; the representative body consisting of 5 deputies of the nobility, 5 of the citizens, and 5 of the rural pop. The deputies are elected every 6 years. The parliament has the control of the public funds, and no new law can be adopted without its consent. The principal judicial courts are at Rudolstadt and Frankenhausen; from which appeal lies to the superior tribunal of Zerbst, in Anhalt-Dessau, Public revenue 205,200 in 1863. The public debt amounted to 154,000Z. in 1863. This principality furnishes 899 men to the army of the German Confederation. Chief towns, Rudolstadt, the cap., on the Saale, and Franken

SCHENECTADY, a town or city of the U. States, New York, cap. co. of its own name, on the Mohawk, a tributary of the Hudson, and on the Erie canal, 16 m. NW. Albany, with which it is connected by a railway. Pop. 10,391 in 1860. The compact portion of the city consists of about 20 streets, with a court-house, co-offices, prison, about 9 or 10 churches, several banks, iron and brass foundries, carpet and tobacco factories, a paper-mill, and various superior public schools, the chief of which is Union College. This establish-hausen. ment, founded in 1785, and incorporated in 1794, is now one of the principal institutions for public instruction in the state. It has twelve professors and other instructors, and a library of 13,000 volumes.

The position of the town on the Erie canal makes Schenectady an important entrepôt, and it has a flourishing and increasing trade. It is said

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SCHWARTZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN, principality of Central Germany, between lat. 515 12′ and 51° 26' N., and about long. 11° E., inclosed by territories belonging to Prussia on every side except the W., where it joins a detached district of Saxe-Gotha, Area, 319 sq. m. Pop. 64,895 in 1861, mostly Lutherans, Surface undulating, and traversed by several affluents of the