Emperor Trajan, who improved and embellished the town and port; it is formed of large blocks of white marble; and it has also another arch in honour of Pope Benedict XIV. The cathedral, situated on a bold promontory on the site of an ancient temple of Venus, has a curious porch, supported by two lions of Egyptian granite; a very ancient altar, and many fine marble pillars. There are 10 other churches, containing many good paintings; 15 convents, a college, and two hospitals. The palace of the delegate, the exchange, the town-house, and the fortifications, particularly the citadel, are also worthy of notice.

Its manufactures, chiefly in. the hands of the Jews, consist principally of wax, tallow, silk hats, and paper. The harbour is well adapted for building and repairing ships, and is frequented by those of all nations. It was made a free port by Clement XII., and has a more considerable trade than any other town on the W. coast of the Adriatic, Venice excepted. Outside the harbour is a fine lazzaretto, on an artificial island, communicating with the town by a bridge. The market-place is spacious, and the town is well furnished with cheap and good provisions. The women are said to be remarkable for their beauty. Thomson (Two Journeys in Italy, &c.) observes, "It was an amusing scene to pace along the wharfs, to listen to the strain of the tiny mandoline, or the deeper tones of the guitar, joined to the patriotic song of some poor Greek, or the more refined Italian ditty; while a medley group were sometimes seen collected in a Greek mystica, or an Italian feluca, dancing, whirling, and stamping to the music of some half dozen voices, or the tinkling of the Spanish guitar."

Ancona is said, by Strabo, to have been founded by a colony of Syracusans in the time of Dionysius. The Romans established themselves in it, B. c. 268. Being justly regarded as a naval station of great importance, Trajan expended large sums upon it, and built the mole. A.D. 592, it was occupied by the Lombards; in 839 it was sacked by the Mussulmans; and it afterwards formed an independent republic till 1532, when Bernardino Barba, under pretext of defending it against the Turks (having built the citadel which entirely commands the town), plared it in the hands of the Pope. In 1799 it was taken by the French and in 1809 formed the chief city of the dep. of the Metauro. In 1814, it was restored to the Papal see. In Feb., 1832, a detachinent of French troops landed unexpectedly, and took possession of the citadel; which the French government announced its resolution to retain so long as any Austrian troops remained within the Papal territories; the latter, however, having been withdrawn, the French evacuated the town in the course of 1839. (Rampoldi Corografia dell' Italia, vol. i. p. 80.; Forsyth's Italy, 1816.; Thomson's Two Journeys in Italy, &c. Lond. 1835, pp. 239 to 253.) ANCY-LE-FRANC, a town of France, dep. Yonne, cap. cant. on the canal of Burgundy, 10 m. S.E. Tonnerre. Pop. 1,413. It is neat and well built, but is chiefly remarkable for the magnificent castle in its vicinity, built after the designs of Primaticcio, belonging to the descendants of Louvois, minister of Louis XIV. It is sur rounded by a beautiful park, and has fine gardens. (Hugo,

art. Yonne.

ANDAD KHAN, a town of Independent Tartary, Khanat of Khokan, on the Sihoun (Jaxartes), 55 m. É. Khokan, lat. 41° 20′ N., long. 71° 27′ E. It is surrounded by gardens, and is a place of considerable size and antíquity.

ANDALUSIA, (so called, either from the Vandals who settled here in the fifth cent., or from an Arabic word, signifying Land of the West, the most S. di vision of Spain, comprising the four Moorish kingdoms of Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and Granada, between 36° 0′ and 38°33′ N. lat., and 1° 37′ and 7° 24′ W. long., having N. Estremadura and La Mancha; E. Murcia; W. Portugal; and S. the Atlantic Ocean, the Str. of Gibraltar, and the Mediterranean: length, E. to W., about 350 m.; greatest breadth nearly 200 m. area, 27,153 sq. m. Pop. about 2,400,000. It is at present divided into eight provinces, viz.-Seville, Cadiz, Cordova, Granada, Jaen, Malaga, Almeria, and Huelva. Its chief cities are Seville, Cadiz, Cordova, Jaen, Almeria, Granada, Malaga, Huelva, and Gibraltar. Two ranges of mountains traverse it from E. to W.: the most S. of these ranges is the loftiest, and has several points covered with perpetual snow; the highest, Mulahacen, being 11,678 ft. above the level of the sea. The Sierra Morena belongs to the N. chain, and forms part of the N. boundary of the district. Between these two ranges flows the Guadalquivir, by far the largest of the Andalusian rivers, and swelled by numerous streams from the lateral vallies opening into its basin. There are numerous small lakes. On the coast, the climate is hot and oppressive; but N. of the Sierra Nevada, the temperature is more equable, and cooler, although it never freezes. The primitive rocks of the high S. mountains are chiefly mica-slate, gneiss, and clay-slate, covered in some parts by black-transition

limestone, containing sulphuret of lead. Serpentine marble, and alabaster, are found in Granada; and there are numerous mines, that either produce, or have produced, gold, silver, copper, antimony, mercury, iron, lead, vitriol, coal, and sulphur; but, with the exception of the lead mines of Adra, near Malaga, they are at present mostly in a neglected state. The vegetation partakes of the European and African characters: mastic, olive, myrtle, palms, bananas, &c., abound in the central parts of the country, but on the S. shores those common to Europe almost wholly disappear, and the sugar-cane and cotton are cultivated. Wheat, barley, fruits of all sorts, and wines, are abundantly produced; the chief wines are those of Xeres (shierry), Pajarete, Malaga, Montilla, &c.: silk is also an article of considerable culture. There are many rich pasturelands; and the cattle and horses, especially the latter, are renowned as amongst the best in Spain. The wolf and boar are the only formidable wild animals; there is plenty of game, an abundance of fish, and none of the most venomous reptiles: the cochineal insect is successfully cultivated near Cadiz. Most part of the country is parcelled out into vast estates, belonging to grandees, the church, and corporations. Agriculture is in a very backward state. The greater part of the country is appropriated to pasture, the traveller often journeying many miles without seeing a single house, or any symptoms of cultivation; and, notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, there is annually a considerable importation of corn from the opposite coast of Africa, Sicily, and the Black Sea. The occupiers of the land mostly live together in towns and villages; their rents are usually paid on the métayer principle, and they are at once ignorant and poor; the inhabitants of the mountainous and less fertile districts are, as might be expected, the most industrious. The chief manufactures are those of woollens, silk, and leather; and but for oppressive customs laws, there would be a considerable trade both with other parts of Spain and foreign countries. Cadiz is the chief port.

The Andalusians are a mixed race, descended from Africans, Carthaginians, Romans, Goths, Vandals, and Moors. They retain much resemblance, both in person and manners, to the latter; although light hair, eyes and complexions, are by no means unfrequent. When they have any motive to exertion, they are not deficient in industry, and are intelligent and imaginative. Andalusia has produced many good poets and distinguished men in all ages: -Trajan, the Senecas, and Silius Italicus were natives of this prov. with Murillo, the painter, and some of the best lyric authors of modern Spain. (Minano. Townsend's Spain, ii. 238.: MalteBrun, &c.; and see SPAIN.)

They

ANDAMAN ISLANDS, a lengthened narrow group of islands, none of which are of any very considerable magnitude, in the E. part of the Bay of Bengal, stretching N. and S., between 10° 30′ and 13° 40′ N. lat.. under about 92° 50′ E. long. They are within the full sweep of the S. W. monsoon, and are washed for eight months a year by incessant rains. They produce many large trees, that might furnish timber and planks for the construction of ships, and for the finest cabinet work. The quadrupeds are but few, consisting principally of a diminutive breed of swine and rats. Among the birds is the swallow, that produces the edible nests so highly esteemed in China. Fish are generally plentiful, but occasionally scarce. The inhabitants, who are not supposed to exceed 2,500 or 3,000 in number, seem to be a peculiar race in the lowest state of barbarism. seldom exceed 5 feet in height, have protuberant bellies, limbs disproportionally slender, skin a deep sooty black, hair woolly, nose flat, lips thick, eyes small and red, their countenances exhibiting the extreme of wretchedness a mixture of famine and ferocity. They go quite naked, and are insensible to shame from exposure. They have made no effort to cultivate the ground, and are found only on the sea-coast, depending principally for subsistence on fishing. Their implements are of the rudest texture; but they use them with great dexterity, particularly in spearing and capturing fish. They have no utensil that will resist fire, and dress their food by throwing it on the live embers, and devouring it half broiled. Their habitations display little more ingenuity than the dens of wild beasts. Being much incommoded by insects, their first occupation in the morning is to plaster their bodies all over with mud, which, hardening in the sun, forms an impenetrable armour. They paint their woolly heads with red ochre and water, and, when completely dressed, have a most hideous appearance. They have an intense hatred of strangers, with whom they cannot be persuaded to hold any intercourse. They are supposed to worship the sun and moon; and during storms and tempests, endeavour to avert the wrath of the dæmon by whom they suppose them to be produced. Their language is peculiar, and is not known to have the slightest affinity to any spoken in India, or in any of

the Indian islands. They have been said to be anthropophagists, but this is doubtful. Some have supposed them to be a race of degenerate negroes; but this is a matter as to which it is impossible to arrive at any definite conclusion.

A British settlement was established at Port Cornwallis, on the largest of the islands, near the N. E. extremity of the group, in 1793. The harbour is excellent; and the settlement was designed for the reception of convicts from Bengal, and for the security of shipping during the monsoons; but the situation turned out so very unhealthy, as to occasion its abandonment in 1796. Since then they have been but seldom visited, except in 1824 and 1825, when some of the ships, on their way to Rangoon, touched at the islands. On one of these occasions, the natives attacked a party watering with the utmost fury; and were not repulsed without great loss on their side, and after they had killed one soldier, and wounded three others. (The above particulars have been selected from the excellent account of these islands, given by Symes, Embassy to Ava, pp. 127–138. 4to. ed.; see also Hamilton's Gazetteer.)

ANDELYS (LES), two towns of France, within a very short distance of each other, dep. Eure, cap. arrond. one on the Seine, and the other a little inland, 10 or 11 m. E. Louviers. Pop. 5,085. The greater Andely is ill built, with narrow crooked streets; but it has a fine collegiate church. The lesser Andely has to boast of the magnificent ruins of the château Gaillard. There are manufactures of fine cloth, kerseymeres, rateens, cotton yarns, and paper, with tanneries, &c. Nicholas Poussin, the famous painter, was born in the hamlet of Villers, near the greater Andely, in 1594; and a monument has been erected to his memory in that town.

ANDENNES, a town of Belgium, prov. Namur on the Maese, 13 m. E. N. E. Namu. Pop. 4,203. There are manufactures of earthenware and porcelain, and of pipes formed of the clay found in the neighbourhood. ANDERLECHT, a neat well-built town of Belgium, near Brussels, of which it is in fact a suburb. (See BRUSSELS.)

ANDERNACH (the Antunacum of the Romans), a town of the Prussian prov. of Lower Rhine, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 m. N. W. Coblentz. Pop. 3,000. It is situated in a volcanic country, its massive towers, turrets, and ruined walls, being admirably suited to the sombre scenery by which it is surrounded. Streets narrow and ill paved, and the houses gloomy, old, and out of repair. There is a fine old archway, supposed to be Roman, forming the gate of the town on the side next Coblentz; and below it, in a line towards the river, are the ruins of an extensive palace, or castle, supposed to have been built by the Goths soon after the expulsion of the Romans. It exports two singular productions, viz. mill-stones made of porous lava, and large quantities of pounded tufa, denominated trass, a cement which, when mixed with water, becomes as hard as stone. The former are in great demand in most parts of Europe; the latter is principally used by the Dutch in the construction of their dykes, but is also exported to other countries. Immense rafts of timber from the German forests, destined for the Low Countries, are formed near Andernach. (Barrow's Tour through Holland, &c.; and Schreiber's Rhine.)

ANDES (THE), an immense mountain range, runs along the whole W. coast of S. America, covering with its chains, declivities, and valleys about a sixth part of that continent. The Cordillera, a name sometimes given to this chain, is properly applicable only to the innermost and and highest ridge of the mass.

Cape Horn, on Cape Horn Island, in about 56° S. lat., may be considered as the S. extremity of the Andes. The most N. chain of the mountains is the Paramo de las Rosas, which extends to the E. of Lake Maracaybo, and terminates at about 90 N. lat. The whole system is thus found to extend lengthwise over 65 deg. of lat. Its width varies very much; in some parts it occupies only between 30 or 40 miles across, in others it covers with its branches and valleys a country extending 500 miles and upwards from E. to W.

Beginning our survey of this mountain system at its southern extremity, we find that it commences at the Cape of Good Success, on the W. shores of the Straits of Le Maire, in about 70° W. long. Even the high rocky mass which constitutes the island of Staaten Land, and extends more than a degree farther E., may be considered

Paramo, rendered desert in the dictionaries, signifies in S. America neither a desert nor a heath, but like the Peruvian word puna denotes a mountainous place covered with stunted trees, exposed to the winds, and in which a damp cold perpetually prevail. Under the torrid zone the paramos are generally from 10,000 to 12,000 feet high. They are, in fact, the lower summits of the cordilleras. Snow often falls in them, but it remains only a few hours. In this respect

as a continuation of this range, from which it is separated only by the Straits of Le Maire, between 30 and 40 m. across. From the Cape of Good Success the range runs W. along the S. shores of King Charles's Southland, the most extensive of the islands constituting the S. Archipelago of America, commonly called Tierra del Fuego. It covers about a third part of the surface of that island, as well as the whole of the islands lying S. of it; as Navarin, Hoste, Wollaston, Hermit, and Cape Horn. Towards the Straits of Le Maire, the range consists of rocky hills, of no great elevation; but farther W. they rise to an altitude of 2,000 or 3,000 ft. Cape Horn itself is a conspicuous rock, with a steep ascent, upwards of 3,000 ft. high. Mount Sarmiento, near Magdalen Channel, is the highest summit, and rises about 6,000. ft. above the sea.

In the W. part of King Charles's Southland, the range extends over the whole district S. and W. of Admiralty Bay. Farther W. it changes its direction, running in a N. W. direction as far as the Frith of Sansalid (Ancon Sinsalida of the Spaniards), 52° S. lat., and 73° W. long. This part of the range, whose mean width may be about 100 or 120 miles, is longitudinally divided by that portion of the Strait of Magalhaens which extends from Cape Froward to Cape Victoria. Two transverse channels divide the S. portion into two islands. The E. or Magdalen Channel, separates Clarence Island from King Charles's Southland; and the W. extends between Clarence Island and South Desolation; the latter bears the name of Barbara Channel. That part of the range which lies to the N. E. of the strait is intersected by two deep transverse inlets. The south-eastern, called Jerome Channel, terminates on the E. in two large lagoons, called Otway and Skrying Waters, which are both situated on the eastern side of the Andes in the plains of Patagonia. By this extensive inlet Brunswick Peninsula is divided from King William's Land. The N. W. transverse inlet bears the name of Smyth's Channel, and divides first King William's Land from Queen Adelaide's Archipelago, and afterwards joins the Frith of Sinsalid, which likewise penetrates through the whole chain of the Andes, and terminates with its numerous branches in the plains of Patagonia. South of this frith the mountains rise somewhat higher than on King Charles's Southland, but their mean elevation does not exceed 4000 ft. above the sea.

The mountain range south of the Frith of Sinsalid may be called the Magalhaens Andes, extending principally on both sides the strait bearing that name. It consists of islands and peninsulas intersected by deep but narrow arms of the sea. The summits of the mountains are covered with eternal snow, the snow line occurring in these countries at about 3,500 feet above the sea. The lower parts of the mountains and the steep and rocky shores of the islands are partly covered with evergreen woods; except towards the ocean, where they present the aspect of bare black rocks.

At the Frith of Sinsalid begins the uninterrupted chain of the Andes. At this place it again changes its direction, running due N. with slight bends as far north as the Bight of Arica (180 S. lat.). It comprehends the Patagonian Andes between 52° and 42°, the southern Chilean Andes between 420 and 35°, and the northern Chilean

and Atacamean Andes between 35 and 20° S. lat.

salid to the N. corner of the Gulph of Ancud, opposite the The Patagonian Andes extend from the Frith of Sinisland of Chiloe. They are only known from the side of the ocean, whence they rise to a considerable height with an extremely steep ascent. It would seem as if the range in this part had once occupied a much greater breadth, and that by some extraordinary convulsion the whole of the western declivity, with the summits of the range, had been broken down and buried in the ocean, so that only the eastern declivity has remained standing. The numerous and rocky islands which skirt this shore in all its extent, except at the protruded cape of Tres Montes, appear to support such a supposition. The eastern declivity of the range has not been examined; but what we know of it seems to be sufficient to warrant the supposition that in this part the Andes occupy a width of only from 30 to 40 miles. The mean height of the Patagonian Andes may be estimated at about 5,000 or 6,000 ft. None of its summits which have been measured exceed 9,000 ft. But snow mountains, and even glaciers, are stated to be frequent. The lower part of the declivity is covered with trees and shrubs, the upper part bare, as also those portions of the shore which are exposed to the immediate effects of the gales blowing from the Pacific.

The Southern Chilean Andes extend from the most

they are distinguished from the nevados, which enter the limits of perpetual snow. The paramos are almost constantly enveloped in a cold thick fog; so that, when a thick small rain falls, accompanied with a depression of the temperature, they say at Bogota, or at Mexico, cae un paramito. Hence has been formed the provincial word empa ramarse, to be as cold as if one were on a paramo. (Humboldt, Pers. Nat. ii. p. 252.; Modern Traveller, xxvii. p. 14.)

N. corner of the Gulph of Ancud (42° S. lat.) to the high peak of Tupungato (near 33° S. lat.). Towards the S. extremity the Andes keep for some extent a distance of about 150 miles from the shores of the Pacific, the greatest which they attain in their whole course; but towards the N. they gradually approach it to within about 100 miles. Between the Andes and the shore are extensive plains, from 1,200 to 2,000 ft. above the sea; and from these plains the mountains rise with an extremely steep acclivity to the mean elevation of 13,000 or 14,000 ft. above the sea. Some summits attain 15,000, and even 15,500 ft. Though our knowledge respecting this part of the Andes be very scanty, it would seem that they form one extensive mass from 60 to 80 miles across, which, however, in its upper part is furrowed by a longitudinal valley, divided by short transverse ridges into several shorter valleys. This great mass of rocks is mostly clothed with forest trees and a rich vegetation; but in the interior it presents only bare rocks, nearly without plants of any description. Three passes are known to traverse the Chilean Andes. That farthest S. skirts the high volcano of Antuco, between 37 and 36° S. lat., leading from the small town of Tucapel to the great plains E. of the Andes. It is also used by the aborigines inhabiting these plains, who bring to Chile salt and some commodities. The second road traverses the Pass del Planchon, which crosses the mountain ridges near 35° S. lat., beginning on the west at the village of Curico and leading to the territory of the Pehuenches, who occupy the E. declivity of the Andes, and thence to Mendoza. It is said to be the lowest of the mountain passes of the Andes, vegetation ascending up to the highest part of the road; it is farther stated to be more gentle in its ascents and descents. Yet it is little used, except by persons trading with the Indians in the Pampas. The third pass is that of Portillo, which at first runs along the river Maypo, S. of Santiago, the capital of Chile, and afterwards crosses the two ridges of the Andes which enclose the valley of Tunuyan. On the W. ridge the road rises to 14,362, on the E. to 13,210 feet above the level of the sea. From the latter it descends to the plains, and leads to Mendoza. It is the nearest way between the last-mentioned town and Santiago, the capital of Chile, and is therefore sometimes, but not frequently, used.

The high peak of Tupungato may be considered as forming the boundary between the S. and N. Chilean Andes. N. of this summit the Andes, which farther S. form only one enormous mass of rocks, divide into two masses, which enclose long and wide valleys considerably lower than the surrounding ridges. The first valley of this description is that of Uspallata, which extends about 180 or 200 miles S. and N. It is traversed by two rivers; the Rio de Mendoza, which flows S.; and the Rio de S. Juan, which runs N. The watershed between them lies N. of 320 S. lat. This valley is about 15 miles in width, and presents an undulating surface. It is about 6,000 ft. above the level of the sea. The range E. of it, called the Paramillo de Uspallata, seems not to exceed 10,000 ft.; but the W. or principal range attains 14,000 ft. and upwards. The former is about 25, and the latter more than 70 miles across. The E. range has two narrow breaks, by which the two rivers of the valley find their way to the plains extending E.

Over these two ranges, and through the valley of Uspallata, lies the most frequented mountain road crossing the Andes. On the west it begins at the town of Santa Rosa, in the valley of the Quillota river (2,614 ft. above the sea); it next follows the bed of that river for a great distance, and then crosses the high range nearly at equal distances from the mountain summits of Tupungato and Aconcagua (between 33° 32° S. lat.). Cumbre or highest point is 12,454 feet above the Pacific. Hence the road descends along the Rio de Mendoza into the valley of Uspallata, passes the Paramillo range, and enters the plains near Villa Viciosa, whence it runs along the last-mentioned mountain chain to Mendoza (2,608 ft. above the sea); from Mendoza it leads over the Pampas to Buenos Ayres. Though much frequented, it cannot be passed by carriages, and only mules are used for the transport of commodities, and by passengers. In winter (from June to September) the passage is very dangerous, on account of the heavy falls of snow, which cause frequent losses of life and property. The pass is by some named that of the Cumbre, and by others of Uspallata.

N. of the valley of Uspallata the Andes continue to form two ranges, including extensive longitudinal valleys. The first in order is that of Agualasta, of which we know only that its soil is sterile, but its mountains rich in metallic ores. Then follows the valley of Andalgala, which is entirely unknown. The latter extends to 23° S. lat. A great number of mountain passes are stated to exist over the W. range enclosing these valleys, which would indicate that the mean elevation of the Andes is here much less than in other parts. But none of these passes seems to be much used, nor has any of them been visited

by European travellers. It is, however, known that towards the Pacific this range does not descend with a short and rapid declivity, as in the S. Chilean Andes, but by table-lands in the form of terraces, which near the principal chain are 5,000 feet and more above the sea, but lower by degrees as they approach the ocean, where they still form a shore from 30 to 500 feet high. Being furrowed by deep water-courses, these table-lands, when seen from the banks of the rivers, appear frequently like mountains of considerable height.

From their farthest S. point as far as the N. point of the valley of Uspallata, the Andes do not send out lateral branches. But from the E. range, including the valleys of Agualasta and Andalgala, several ranges branch off into the E. plains, and extend in a S. and E. direction to a distance of from 200 to 250 m. By these lateral chains the countries extending E. of the Andes, between 33 and 23 S. lat., are rendered hilly, and in some districts even mountainous. In the S. districts the height of the ranges is not considerable, but farther to the N. it increases greatly; and the chain, which branches off at the N. end of the valley of Andalgala, and forms at present the boundary between the republics of Buenos Ayres and Bolivia, may attain a height of 10,000 ft. above the sea. It terminates at no great distance from the point where the Rio Grande enters the Rio Vermejo.

Between 230 and 200 S. lat. the principal range of the Andes seems to constitute a single chain, rising to a mean height of above 15,000 feet. In it stands the Nevado de Chorolque, which is stated to rise 16,548 ft. above the sea; but it is probable that it is at least 1,000 ft. higher. From this chain several lower and narrow ridges run E. 120 or 150 m. The S. districts of Bolivia are in consequence rendered a succession of valleys and mountains. However, these ridges do not attain a great elevation over the plains on which they rise. A road traverses the principal chain; it begins on the coast of the Pacific at Cobija, or Puerto de la Mar, the principal harbour of Bolivia, passes over the high Andes of Lipez near the volcano of Atacama, and descends to Tupiza; hence it runs to Potosi and Chuquisaca. This road is not much used, on account of the sterility of the surrounding country, and the difficulty of procuring provender for the mules and other animals of burden. In some parts water too is extremely scarce.

Near 20. S. lat. is the mountain knot of Porco. Here begin the Bolivian Andes, which extend to 14° S. lat., and may be considered as constituting the central portion, of the whole mountain system. In no other part do the mountains attain an equal height, nor do they extend to such a considerable breadth. They present here one immense mass of rocks, extending in length over six deg. of lat., and measuring in breadth at the S. extremity more than 250, and at the N. about 200 m. The upper part of this enormous mass is between 13,000 and 14,000 feet above the level of the sea. On its edges are placed numerous mountain summits, which rise many thousand feet above the upper surface of the mass, so that the whole presents to the eye a plain surrounded everywhere by high ridges. The mountains enclosing the plain at its S. extremity rise to a great elevation, but not so high as those towards the N. The famous Cerro de Potosi is only 16,037 ft. high, and that of Porco 15,913 ft. In summer they have no snow upon them. The W. range contains summits of much greater elevation. The volcano of Gualatieri (near 199 S. lat.) rises 22,000 ft., and the Nevado de Chuquebamba (near 15° S. lat.) to 21,000 ft. above the sea. The E. range is still higher. Between the Cerro de Potosi and 16° 50′ S. lat. none of its summits attain 17,000 feet of elevation, which here constitutes the snow line. But farther N. a great number of snow-topped peaks raise their heads above the clouds. At 16° 40′ stands the Nevado de Illimani, which attains 24,000 feet; and farther north the Nevado de Zorata, which is about a thousand feet higher. The elevation of these two summits has been determined by Mr. Pentland; but he states that there are others which seem not much lower, especially the Nevado de Yani, N. of Mount Zorata. These two high ranges run nearly parallel to one another; south of 17° S. lat. nearly due S. and N., but N. of that parallel S. S. E. and N. N. W. At their N. extremity (14° S. lat.) they are united by a transverse range, which extends N. N. E. and S. S. W., and is known by the name of Andes of Vilcanota. This latter range has several summits covered with perpetual snow, but their elevation has not been ascertained.

The country enclosed by these ranges forms an immense alpine valley, whose lowest parts are nearly 13,000 feet above the sea. It does not present a level plain; for those portions of it which are contiguous to the ranges are covered with mountains, or rather hills, rising several hundred and in many places even a thousand feet above their bases. But the internal districts preserve a sufficiently level surface to be called a plain. This is known under the name of the Valley of Titicaca, or of the Desaguadero. The first denomination is derived from

the lake of that name which occupies the N. portion of the valley, covering about 4,000 sq. m. It is famous in the history of Peru for the miraculous appearance of Manco Capac, the founder of the Inca dynasty. From its S. extremity issues a river, called the Desaguadero, which traverses the whole valley from 15° to 19 S. lat., where it is lost in a small lake. The length of the valley is upwards of 300 miles, but its width varies. In the parallel of Puno (15° 50') it exceeds 60 miles, and in lat. 16° 50′ it is still wider; but from this point to its S. termination it gradually narrows, so as in the parallel of Oruro (17° 58′) not to exceed 35 m. According to the statement of Mr. Pentland, the area of this valley, including the lake, exceeds 18,000 sq. m., of which the lake covers between a fourth and a fifth part. The surface of the lake is 12,795 ft. above the level of the sea.

The ranges enclosing the alpine valley of Titicaca are traversed by several mountain roads, of which the following are the most frequented:-That through the pass of Potosi, traversing the Puerto between the Cerro of Potosi and that of Huayna Potosi. It leads from Potosi to Oruro, and rises in its highest point to 14,320 feet. The road over the pass of Condur Pacheta, between Oruro and Cochabamba, rises in its highest part to 13,950 ft. above the sea. The road through the pass of Pacuani, leading from La Paz to the countries east of the ridges, rises to 15,226 feet. The most used road is over the western range, and that through the pass of Las Gualillas, leading from Arica on the coast, and Tacna, to La Paz, in the valley of Titicaca; it traverses the range at 17° 50′ S. lat., S. of the Nevado de Chipicani, where it rises to 14,830 ft. Farther N. (16° 2′ S. lat.) is another road, which connecting Arequipa with Puno, attains in the pass of Altos de Toledo an elevation of 15,528 feet

above the sea.

Several lateral ridges run off from this great mass of rocks to the E.; but none of them seems to be distinguished by its height or extent, except the Sierra de Santa Cruz, which detaches itself from the principal range about 17° 10 S. lat., and terminates near the banks of the Rio Guapai or Rio Grande, within a few leagues of the town of S. Cruz de la Serra. It extends about 300 miles, and is of considerable elevation in its western part, where it forms the Nevado de Tinaica, near Cochabamba; farther east it becomes gradually lower.

The Peruvian Andes occupy the next place, extending from 140 to 60 S. lat. Between these latitudes they measure from 400 to 450 m. in width, and their area does not probably fall short of 200,000 sq. m. On their borders extend two ranges; of which the E., separating the mountain region from the great plains extending south of the Amazon, branches off from the E. extremity of the Andes of Vilcanota in a N. direction. It divides the affluents of the Ucayale from those of the Yavari, and terminates near 7° S.lat., about 160 m. from the Amazon. We know very little of this range, but it does not seem to rise any where to a great height; probably none of its summits exceed 10,000 ft. above the sea.

The W. range of the Peruvian Andes, which, with its W. declivities, approaches the Pacific Ocean to a distance of 50 miles or less, must be considered as the principal chain, on account of its height and breadth, and because it forms with the N. parts of the Andes an uninterrupted chain. It may be said to commence near the Nevado de Chuquebamba, where the Andes of Vilcanota join the W. range of the valley of Titicaca. It is remarkable that the Peruvian Andes seem to be rather a continuation of the Andes of Vilcanota than of the great W. chain; for near 16° S. lat. and between 71° and 750 W. long, the Peruvian Andes extend in a direction E. and W., whilst three degrees farther S. the Bolivian Andes run S. and N. In this portion of the Andes are some very high summits. Besides the Nevado de Chuquehamba, already noticed, are the Cerro de Huando and the Cerro de Parinacocha, whose elevation, however, has not been determined. Near 750 W. long, the principal chain of the Andes declines to N. W., and runs in that direction to the neighbourhood of Cape Parina, the most W. extremity of S. America. In the S. portion of this chain several summits rise above the snow line, but the elevation of none of them has been determined. The best known are, the Toldo de la Nieve, seen from Lima, to the S. E. of which it is situated; the Altunchagua, near 10 S. lat.; and the Nevado de Hauylillas, 7° 50'S. lat. But between the last-named snow peak and Mount Chimborazo, in the Andes of Ecuador, or Equator (20 S. lat.), there is no summit which attains the snow line.

The country lying between the two outer ranges of the Peruvian Andes presents a continual succession of high ridges and long valleys, here and there intermixed with plains of moderate extent. It forms the best portion of the republic of Peru. The most remarkable district seems to be the plain of Bombon, near 11° S. lat., which is 13,500 feet above the level of the sea, and extends about 18 miles in width from E. to W., and 40 or 50 from S. to N. A great part of this elevated plain, which is

enclosed by two ridges of mountains, and on which the argiferous Cerro of Pasco is situated, is covered with swamps. The water running off from them, and from the elevated ground, which frequently is covered with snow, is collected in several lakes, of which three are especially noticed, as giving birth to three considerable rivers. The farthest N. is the Lake of Llauricocha, from which the Amazon rises; the farthest S. is called the Lake of Quiluacocha, which gives birth to the Sanja or Mataro, one of the principal branches of the Ucayale. Between these lakes is that of Chiquiacola, whence the Rio Huallaga issues. The plain of Bombon is farther to be considered as a mountain knot, from which different ranges branch off in different directions. Besides the principal range of the Peruvian Andes, which lies contiguous to it on the W., two mountain chains run off from it to the N., and one to the S. The most W. of the two N. chains runs nearly parallel to the principal range of the Peruvian Andes, and forms the E. boundary of the valley of the Maranon or Upper Amazon. It rises to a great elevation, but does not enter the snow line. One of its farthest N. branches extends close to the banks of the Amazon, where it forms the famous Pongo (cataract) of Manseriche. A lateral ridge of this chain, branching off from it at about 7°, runs E., and terminates on the banks of the Rio Huallaga, where that river forms its great cataract, or pongo. The farthest E. of the N. chains separates the valley of the Huallaga from the pumpas of S. Sagramento, traversed by the Rio Ucayale. It is towards its beginning in the mountain knot of Bombon of great height, but lowers considerably farther N, terminating between 6 and 7° S. lat. at the Pongo of the Huallaga. The S. chain, issuing from the plain of Bombon, runs S. S. E., nearly parallel to the principal range of the Andes, and encloses the rich valley of the Rio Sanja. It terminates in the most S. bend of that river, about 13° S. lat. and 74° W. long.; and nearly opposite another range of high mountains, which issue from the Andes of Vilcanota, and run N., separating the valley of the Rio Apurimac from that of the Rio Quillabamba or river of Cuzco. The valleys enclosed by these several chains of mountains seem to have a mean elevation of from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea.

The roads fraversing the Peruvian Andes are very imperfectly known. That most to the S. leads from Arequipa (near 16° 30′ S. lat.) on the coast to Cuzco in the valley of the Quillabamba, and traverses very high ranges of mountains. Another road leads from Lima to the town of Tarma, in the valley of the Sanja, and thence to Guancavelica, Huamanga, and Cuzco. It rises on the principal chain at the Portacuelo de Tucto to 15,760 feet above the sea. Farther north is the road passing over the plain of Bombon to the Cerro de Pasco. It traverses on the principal range two mountain passes; of which the W., called Alto de Tacaibamba, attains an elevation of 15,135, and the E. or Alto de Lachagual, 15,480 feet above the sea. Another road connects the town of Truxillo with the valley of the Maranon. It traverses the great range near the Nevado de Guaylillas, and leads to Huamachuco and Caxamarquilla; but we are not acquainted with its particulars.

It con

The Andes of Ecuador, or the Equator, extend to the N. of the Peruvian Andes. Their commencement may be fixed opposite the Punta de Aguja (6° S. lat.) and the place where the Maranon changes its N. N. W. course into a N. N. E. In the same parallel the chain also changes its direction. It runs between 6° S. lat. and the equator, nearly due north. This portion of the mountain system closely resembles the Chilean Andes. stitutes one enormous mass of high rocks, of about 80 or 100 miles in width, overtopped longitudinally by a double series of very elevated summits, so that between them a succession of high valleys is formed. These Andes are also distinguished from those between 33° and 60 S. lat. by their not sending off to the E. lateral branches. Their eastern declivities are supported by short contreforts, which probably no where extend beyond 50 miles into the E. plains.

It is remarkable that the elevated valleys occupying the middle of the range rise in elevation as they advance farther N. That portion of the range which lies between 54° and 34° S. lat. is occupied by an extensive mountain knot, the Andes of Loxa, which, however, at no place attains the snow line. Then follows the longitudinal valley of Cuença, which extends from 3° 15′ to 2° 30, and rises to about 7,800 feet above the sea. On this side no snow mountains occur. The mountains of Assuay, which form the N. boundary of the valley of Cuença, extending between the two outer ranges, rise to 15,500 feet above the sea, and enter the snow line; but they are narrow, occupying only about 3 min. of lat. (between 2° 27′ and 2° 30′). To the N. of them extends the longitudinal valley of Alausi and Hambato, which extends between 2° 27′ and 40′ S. lat., and rises to about 7,920 feet above the sea. The summits of the ranges which enclose it on the E. and W. rise to a great elevation. On the

western range stands the famous Chimborazo, rising 21,420 ft. above the level of the sea. It was until lately considered as the highest summit of the Andes; but it is now known that the high peaks of the Bolivian Andes, the Nevado de Zorata and the Illimani, rise from 3,000 to 4,000 ft. higher. On the E. range stand the volcanoes of Sangay, Collanes, and Llanganate. On the N. the vailey of Alausi and Hambato is bounded by a narrow transverse ridge, the Alto de Chisinche, which hardly rises 300 ft. above the adjacent level ground. But at its extremities, and precisely on the lateral ranges, rise two very high summits; on the E. the volcano of Cotopaxi, attaining 18,880 ft.; and on the W. the Yliniza, attaining

17,376 ft. above the sea.

The valley of Quito extends from 40′ S. lat. to 20′ N. lat., and has an elevation of 9.600 ft. above the sea. It likewise is skirted by very high summits, on the E. by Antisana, which attains 19,136 ft., and by Cayambe Urcu, which attains 19,648 ft. above the sea. The summit of the latter mountain is traversed by the Equator. On the W. range the highest summits are the Pichincha, rising to 15,936 feet, and the Cotocache, 16,448 ft. above

the sea.

The three longitudinal valleys of Quito, Alausi, Hambato, and Cuença, being only separated from each other by very narrow transverse ridges, may be considered as one valley, extending 240 miles in length, with a mean breadth of from 12 to 16 miles. They form the most populous and richest portion of the republic of Equator.

The northern boundary of the valley of Quito is formed by a transverse ridge between the Nevado of Cotocache and the volcano of Imbabura (21′ N. lat.). To the N. of it lie the Andes of los Pastos, an extensive mountain region, which extend to 1° 13′ N. lat., and is crowned by several high summits and volcanoes; as the volcanoes of Cumbal, Chiles, and Pasto. The narrow valleys which lie between the different ridges by which it is traversed are, at a medium, 10,000 feet above the sea.

This portion of the Andes is directed from S. W. to N. E., and may be considered as the centre of the N. Andes; for it is here that the chain begins to divide into two principal branches; the western of which is called Cordillera de la Costa or de Sindagua, whilst the E. bears the name of Andes de los Pastos.

The Andes of Sindagua have a break at about 1° 20′ N. lat., by which the Rio de las Patias carries off the waters descending from the Andes de los Pastos and those which collect in the valley of Almaguer. This valley extends between 1° 13′ and 1° 56′ N. Its surface is very uneven, and its mean elevation may be about 6,900 feet above the sea. In the mountains, which extend to the E. of it is a large alpine lake, the Cianega de Sebondoy, in which the Rio Putumaya or Ica, a large tributary of the Amazon, takes its origin. This E. chain expands considerably to the N. of 1° 56′ N. lat., so as to form a mountain knot, which receives the name of Paramo de las Papas. A little farther north (2° 5′ N. lat.) the knot divides into two chains of mountains, which advancing N. enclose the valley of the Rio Mag. dalena, as we shall see afterwards. From the mountain knot of the Paramo de las Papas a transverse ridge branches off westward, uniting the eastern chain of the Andes with the cordillera of Sindagua, and separating the valley of Almaguer from the great valley of the Cauca. Near the place where this transverse range leaves the mountain knot of los Pastos is the volcano de Puracé, 14,544 feet above the sea. This volcano may be considered as the most N. point of the Andes of Equator, comprising those of Quito and of los Pastos.

The countries lying on both declivities and at the foot of the Andes of the Equator are very thinly inhabited, and almost entirely by aboriginal nations, unacquainted with civilization and commerce. But the elevated valleys lying between the two ranges are comparatively well peopled, partly by the descendants of Europeans, and partly by Indians who have made some progress in civilization, and are acquainted with the advantages of commerce. Hence the great commercial road which traverses this portion of the Andes runs longitudinally over the internal valleys, beginning on the north at Popayan (2 26′ 17′′ N. lat.) in the valley of the Cauca, and terminating at Truxillo (8° 5′ 40′′ S. lat.) on the Pacific. From Popayan (5,721 ft. above the sea) it ascends the Alto de Roble (6.176 ft.), and then the Alto de Quilquase (6,416 ft.). Hence it descends to the Rio de Guachicon (3,042 ft.), whence it rises again by degrees to the town of Almaguer (7,440 ft.) in the valley of Almaguer. It next enters the mountains of los Pastos, passing over the Paramo de Puruguay (9,408) to the village of Pasto (8.578 ft.). S. of this it descends to the Rio de Guaitara (5,456 ft.), and again ascends a steep declivity to the village of Guaciugal (10,320 ft.), whence it passes to the village of Tulian (10,112 ft.). Having traversed the Paramo de Boliche (11,504 ft.), and the Alto de Pucara (10,400 ft.), it descends by a steep declivity to the river

Chota, which is passed at the Ponte de Chota (5,280 ft.), and hence it leads upward to the town of Quite (9,536 ft.). From Quito the road runs over the plain to the Alto de Chisinche, which has a little more than 10,000 feet of elevation. It next passes through the valley by Hambato (8.864 ft.), Riobamba Nueva (9,472 ft.), Guamote (10,224 ft.), and Alausi (7,984 ft.). Between the last-mentioned place and the town of Cuença is the famous and dangerous pass over the Paramo de Assuay, which in its highest point, the Ladera de Cadlud, rises to 15,536 ft., and is above the snow line. More or fewer lives are annually lost on this paramo. Cuença is 8,640 ft. above the sea. Leaving this town the road descends to the Rio de Saraguru (7,376 ft.), and again rises to the Alto de Pulla (10,000 ft.), whence it passes to Loxa (6,768 ft.). From Loxa the road passes to the W. declivity of the Andes, where it traverses Ayavaca (8,992 ft.) and Olleros (4,768 ft.), whence it repasses the range by the Paramo de Guamani (10,960 ft.), and enters the valley of the Maranon. In this it traverses Guancabamba (6,360 ft.), Zulaca (4,352 ft.), the Paramo de Yamoca (8,768 ft.), the Passo de Pucura (3,552 ft.), Montan (8,560), and Caxamarca (9,200 ft.). From the last-mentioned place it again passes the Andes to Guangamarca (8,000 ft.), and runs hence to Cascas (4,384 ft.) and Los Mokinos (608), terminating at Truxillo (200 ft. above the sea). Thus this long road runs continually over mountains in traversing 94° of lat.

From Guayaquil a road leads to Quito. From the first-mentioned place it runs through the low grounds skirting the Rio de Guayaquil to Caracol, and then along the banks of the Rio Ojibar to Caluma, where the ascent of the mountains commences. The acclivity is extremely steep between Caluma and Chimbo, which is situated on an elevated country S. of the Chimborazo. From Chimbo the road leads to Mocha and Hombato, where it joins the great mountain road.

There exists a road between Quito and the harbour of Carondelet over the Pass de Malbucha, but we are not acquainted with the particulars relating to it.

We observed above, that at about 1° 20 N. lat. the Andes of Sindagua branch off from the mountain knot of los Pastos. The E. range divides again at about 20 5′ N. lat. in two high mountain ranges. Thus we find N. of the latter parallel the Andes divided into three distinct chains, which enclose the valleys of the rivers Magdalena and Cauca. These chains are called the E., Central, and W. Andes.

The Eastern Andes of New Granada run between 20 5 and 5° 30 N. lat., nearly parallel with the central range N. N. E.; but N. of 5° 30′ they incline farther E., running due N. E. Though none of its summits, except the Nevado de Chita (5° 50′ N. lat.) and the Nevado de Mucuchues(8-12) enter the line of perpetual congelation, its mean height is commonly above the region of trees; and the paramos, which extend on its summits, have a scanty vegetation, and rise to an elevation of between 12,000 and 14,000 ft. Las Rosas, the most N. of these paramos, terminates near 90 N. lat., and may be considered as the most N. extremity of the Andes; for the hilly country lying farther N. about the towns of Tucuyo and Barquisimento is not known to contain summits exceeding 4,000 or 5,000 ft. in elevation, and on that account alone cannot be considered as a continuation of the gigantic mountain system of the Andes.

The eastern declivity of this range is so precipitous that it affords no space for agriculture, and can only be ascended with great difficulty; but on its W. declivity recline several extensive table-lands, exhibiting a more or less level surface, and rising to an elevation of from 6,000 to 9,000 ft. above the sea. Such are the rich and fertile plains of Bogota, with those of Tunja, Socorro, Sogamozzo, and Pamplona. These table-lands terminate rather abruptly, and at a little distance from the banks of the Rio Magdalena. The river Funzha, or Rio de Bogota, when issuing from the plain, precipitates itself at Tequendama, at two bounds, down a perpendicular height of 650 feet. In no other cataract is there so great a mass of water precipitated from so great a height; and the solitude of the place, the luxuriance of the vegetation, and the dreadful roar, present a scene of unrivalled sublimity.

The E. Andes are twice traversed by the road leading from Bogota to Carracas. From the capital of New Granada it runs over the table-land of Bogota and Tunja to the sources of the Teguia, a tributary of the Sogamozzo, where it passes over the Paramo de Almocadero, on the summit of which it attains an elevation of 12,850 ft. above the sea. It then descends towards the E. plain; before attaining which, it again ascends the range to the town of Pampluna, which probably is not less than 9,000 ft. high. To the N. of this it traverses the upper part of the range, and passes to Rosario de Cucuta. From the last-named place the road is made over the high grounds which skirt the N.W. declivity of the chain, passing through Merida, Mendoza, and Truxillo, to Tocuyo.