tered through an extensive jungle. (Fraser's Caspian | Sea, p. 19.)

ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE.

A pa. of England, co. of Lancash., hund. Salford, 6 m. long N. to S., 4 m. broad; area, 9,300 acres. Pop. in 1801, 15,632; 1821, 25,967; 1831, 33,597; nearly half of whom resided in the town of Ashton, and about 10,000 in the hamlets of Lees, Mossley, Audenshaw, and part of Stayley-bridge. At present (1839), the pop. probably exceeds 42,000. Most parts of the parish abound in coal. There are about 20 shafts in operation, and the number of miners may be from 600 to 700. This is one of the principal seats of the cotton manufacture, and most part of the pop. are employed in and dependent upon it for support. There were, in all, about 80 cotton factories, employing about 18 000 hands in the parish, in 1839; of which 42 factories and 9,000 hands belonged to the town of Ashton; 28 factories and 7,000 hands to Staley-bridge, Mossley, &c.; and 10 factories and 2,000 hands to the rest of the parish. Stout printing calicoes and ginghams are the articles principally produced. The woollen manufacture is but inconsiderable. The manor and ecclesiastical patronage belong to the Earl of Stamford.

ASHION-UNDER-LYNE. A m. town of England, co. of Lancashire, in the above pa., on the N. bank of the Tame, 187 m. N.W. by N. London, and 63 m. E. Manchester. Pop. in 1821, 9,220; in 1831, 14,670. It is well laid out, well built, and is eminently thriving. Its rapid growth is owing to the still more rapid extension of the cotton manufacture. Exclusive of the factories engaged in the cotton department (see previous article), it has a hat manufactory and a silk mill; an old and a new church, with numerous chapels and other places of worship an excellent market, the buildings connected with which, cost above 10,000l., has been erected within these few years; and it has a court-house, a theatre, concert-room, &c. The free school is but slenderly endowed; but there are several other schools; a mechanics' institute, with 300 members; and six large Sunday schools, having each from 1,000 to 1,200 children.

There are at present (1838) 4 banks in the town. Market-day, Saturday. There is a cattle market on the first Saturday in each month: Fairs, March 23., April 29., July 14. 15. and 25., Nov. 10. and Nov. 21.

Ashton is admirably situated for trade and manufacture, in the centre of a populous neighbourhood, having an unlimited command of coal, and communicating by means of canals and railways (now in the course of being formed) with all parts of the empire. It was anciently a borough, but for some cause or other has long been disfranchised. The Reform Act conferred on it the privilege of sending one m. to the H. of C. It had in 1831, 612 107. houses, and, in 1837-8, a constituency of 617. ASIA, the largest, most early civilised, and in many respects the most interesting of the great divisions of the globe, extends from 1° 20′ to 78° N. lat., and, when the islands belonging to it are included, from 11° S. lat. From west to east it extends from 26° to 190° E. long. The most northerly point of the continent is Cape Taimura, 780 N. lat.; the most easterly, Cape Tshukotskoi Noss, 190° E. long.; the most southerly, Cape Buros, 1° 20 S. lat.; and the most westerly, Cape Baba, in Asia Minor, 26° E. long. Cape Taimura and Cape Buros are more than 5,300 m. distant from each other, and this consequently is the extent of Asia from N. to S. Its greatest breadth occurs under the parallel of 70° N. lat., between Cape Baba and the E. coast of the Corea, where it extends about 5,600 miles from W. to E. Its surface is supposed to cover about 17,500,000 sq. m., being above four times the area of Europe.

I. SKETCH OF ASIA. On the N. Asia is washed by the Arctic Sea, which separates it from the arctic countries of America; on the E. by the Pacific Ocean, which divides it from the continent of America; on the S. by the Indian Ocean, which lies between it and Australia; on the W. it is conterminous with Africa and Europe. The boundary-line between it and Africa is formed by the Gulph of Aden, the Straits of Babelmandeb (where both continents are only about 16 miles apart), the Red Sea, and the isthmus of Suez, where both continents unite for about 70 miles. Asia is separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, the Egean Sea or Archipelago, the Straits of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, the channel of Constantinople, and the Black Sea. From the eastern shores of the latter sea, the boundaryline runs along the crest of Mount Caucasus to the Caspian Sea, which constitutes the boundary as far as the mouth of the river Oural. Thence it follows the course

of that river up to its source in the Ouralian Range which latter forms the remainder of the boundary-line to the Gulph of Kara, E. of the island of Novaia Zemlia.

To the S. and S.E. of Asia is the greatest of all archipelagos, containing many thousands of large and small islands. These belong partly to Asia, and partly to Australia, but they are not separated by any natural boundary. When the Portuguese and Spaniards began to be acquainted with the islands of India, they conquered oi settled those only which were supposed likely to repay the expense and trouble. These were then, and are still, considered, as belonging to Asia. The others, which did not offer such advantages, and were not settled or visited at that time, are now included in Australia, In this way, Japan, Formosa, the Philippines, the Moluccas, and that long chain of islands, which, in the east, begins with Timorlant, and on the west terminates with Java, are considered as belonging to Asia, whilst the numerous islands dispersed between the Moluccas and New Guinea, and lying at a short distance from the former, are included in Australia. In looking at the map of Asia, we are struck by oberving, that the Pacific Ocean, which divides it from America, no where reaches immediately to the coasts of the continent, but is separated from them by several chains of islands, which, with the coast, form a number of smaller sea-basins. The most northerly of these seabasins is the Sea of Kamtchatka, lying between the N.E. extremity of Asia and the N.W. of America and separated from the Pacific by the Aleutian Islands. The Kurilian Islands, extending from Cape Lopatka to Yeso, the most northerly of the islands forming the empire of Japan, separate another sea-basin from the Pacific; it is called the Sea of Tarakai, from the large island forming its W. side, and commonly called Saghalien. Farther S. lies the Sea of Japan, shut up by the islands constituting that empire and the opposite coasts of Manchooria and Corea. Then follows the sea, called Tongo Hai (Eastern Sea) by the Chinese, with its extensive northern gulph the Wang-Hai (Yellow Sea). This basin is more open towards the Pacific, its entrance being shut up only by two or three small groups of islands, among which the Loo Choo have obtained some celebrity in later times. The island of Formosa forms the southern boundary of this basin. From this island to the equator extends the Han-Hai (Southern Sea) of the Chinese, called by the Europeans the Chinese Sea, be cause it is traversed by them in their voyage to China, The eastern boundaries of this basin are the Philippines and the islands of Palawan and Borneo, and it forms two great gulphs in the continent, those of Tonkin and Siam. The formation of these five sea-basins is partly owing to the three great peninsulas, which project from the continent, the peninsula of the Tshuktshes, occupy, ing 60,000 sq. m.; and those of Kamtchatka and Corea, which are nearly of the same extent.

The S. coast of Asia is not surrounded by close seas, but is quite open to the Indian Ocean, except where it borders on the Chinese Sea; but in these parts are several gulphs which deeply penetrate into the continent, and thus form extensive peninsulas. The principal are the Bay of Bengal, the Sea of Arabia, the Persian Gulph, the Gulph of Ajan, and the Red Sea, separating Asia from Africa. The peninsulas which occur on this side are those of India without the Ganges, which has an area of nearly 800,000 sq. m., India within the Ganges, and Arabia. Each of the last mentioned comprising upwards of a million sq. m.; the three together being nearly equal to Europe in extent.

Where Asia approaches Europe, we meet the large peninsula of Asia Minor, covering a surface of more than 200,000 sq. m., which being surrounded by the Mediterranean and Black Sea, facilitates the intercourse of both continents by sea as well as by land.

The N. coast of Asia, indented by numerous deep bays, and having several projecting tongues of land, would give great advantages to maritime intercourse with other countries, did the severity of the climate not render them inaccessible all the year round. They are nearly every where enclosed by ice.

1. Great Northern Plain. - Conformation of the Surface. Rivers. Along the coasts of the Arctic Sea, always covered with ice, except in the summer months, when it is open along the shores to a distance of a few miles, extends the greatest plain of the globe. This plain not only covers nearly the whole of Northern Asia, but advances westward, extending over the east of Europe, and reaching to the very shores of the North Sea, opposite Great Britain. We may even affirm, that the low and level countries which in England occur along the North Sea between the Thames and Humber, constitute the farthest W. corner of this vast plain. For, a traveller departing from London, and advancing eastward between the parallels of 52 and 530 N. lat. as far as 85° E. long., and hence between 55° and 56° N. lat., will arrive at Takutzk, on the river Lena (130° E. long.) without having passed any mountain-range. The

highest ground in his way would occur about 66° E. long., between the river Oural and the sources of the Tobol, where a chain of hills rises, but only to an absolute height of less than 2,000 ft. In this long journey he would have traversed 130 degrees of long., or more than a third part of the curvature of the earth, and this is the length of the great plain in this parallel. But along the Arctic Sea it stretches farther east, and terminates at 1650 E. long. on the banks of the river Kolyma.

sandy soil, but not in those where it consists of clay. Along the banks of the watercourses trees and shrubs grow, and the soil is fit for agricultural purposes, but is commonly used as meadows.

Along the shores of the Caspian Sea this low and desert country extends to the very edge of the table-land of Iran (Persia), where it terminates between 360 and 37° N. lat., but from the table-land of Eastern Asia it is separated by a mountain-region, which comprehends the countries of Khokan and Badakshan, and between them and the desert extends Bokhara, whose surface is broken into ridges of moderate height, and valleys of considerable width, which, being watered by artificial means, are very productive of all kinds of grain and fruit. This country, therefore, offers a succession of fertile and sterile tracts over the whole of its surface.

It is worthy of remark, that in the seas adjoining the two boundary-ranges two of the most active volcanic systems are met with. To the west of the Scandinavian mountains a great number of volcanoes are placed on the island of Iceland, and as it seems also on the neighbouring island of Jan Mayen. On the east of the Aldan range the peninsula of Kamtchatka offers a similar phenomenon. It seems, that the chain of mountains is mostly covered with volcanic matter, and several very high summits are still active volcanoes. The highest of the two summits of the volcano of Shivelush rises to 10,591 ft. above the sea, and that of the volcano Kliutshewsk even to 15,825 ft. The tracts of low land which extend along the sea-coasts of this peninsula are partly covered with thick forests, and partly with fine grass, but neither agriculture nor the rearing of cattle is attended to, the very scanty population finding it more easy to get its subsistence by fishing.

Besides the two ranges, forming the boundary of the plain to the E. and W., it is nearly in its middle traversed by another chain, the Ouralian mountains, which run nearly due N. and S., on both sides of 60° E. long. This range, which in breadth occupies hardly any where more than 50 or 60 m., exhibits near its N. extremity a few summits, which rise to from 4,000 to 5,000 ft. But the mean elevation is probably not more than 2,000 ft. above the sea. Between 56° and 54° are also some summits which attain between 4,000 and 5,000 ft. At the sources of the river Oural the range lowers considerably, and divides in several ridges; of which one, called the hills of Mugodsharsk, advances in a S.W. direction, and terminates on the plain which divides the Caspian Sea from the lake of Aral. Thus this chain does not join the mountain-ranges in the interior of Asía.

Nearly in the middle of the S. border of the Great Plain, on both sides of the hills of Mugodsharsk and the countries lying S. of it, between 450 and 64° E. long., occurs the most remarkable depression on the surface of the earth. A tract of country, extending over an area of more than 300,000 sq. m., exclusive of the Caspian Sea, is, according to the supposition of Humboldt, lower than the surface of the ocean. The lowest part of it is occupied by the Caspian Sea, which was supposed by Humboldt to be no less than 348 ft. below the surface of the Black Sea; but later, and it is believed more correct, measurements make the level of the Caspian Sea only 116 ft below, and that of the Lake of Aral, 14 ft. above the level of the Black Sea. According to Humboldt, this depression extends between the rivers Kooma, Wolga, and Oural, up to a line drawn from Saratow to Orenburg, whence its boundary runs to the Lake of Ak-sa-kal (480 N. lat., and 63° E. fong.), and then includes the countries traversed by the lower courses of the Sir-Daria (Sihoon, Jazartes) and Amoo-Daria (Oxus). This country is so little elevated above the great lakes, which lie in the midst of it, that a strong N. W. wind of some continuance forces their waters over many miles of the adjacent tracts. Its soil consists partly of sand, and partly of hard clay, on which neither trees nor shrubs grow, and which, only in spring, after the melting of the now, is covered with a scanty but nourishing grass and numerous flowers. It is only used as pasture by the nomadic tribes which wander about in this desert. Natural wells are no where found, but water is met with on digging some feet down in those districts which have a

The Oural dividing Asia from Europe, the great plain is divided between these two continents. Though that portion of it, which belongs to Europe, has immense tracts of very fertile land, especially in the centre of Russia, the plain of Siberia no where exhibits such a soil. Those parts which lie contiguous to the great depression, and as far E. as 82° E. long., are steppes, that is, level countries with a sandy, gravelly, or clayey soil, destitute of trees, except along the bottoms of some of the rivers, and covered partly with low shrubs, and partly with coarse grass, which affords only very scanty pasture. In most parts they are destitute of water. The great steppe of Barabinskaja, between the river Yrtish and Obi, is partly covered with large swamps, and intermingled with numerous salt-lakes, some of considerable extent; the remainder has a dry sterile soil, but when it begins to rise in hills towards the Altai range, many districts are fit for agriculture and are cultivated. This last observation applies still more to the countries farther E., between the river Oby and Yenesei, where agriculture has already advanced from 56° N. lat., to Krasnoyarsk. This portion of the plain is considered the granary of Siberia. Its surface is rather hilly. The countries lying east of the Yenesei do not exhibit a level plain, but rather an undulating surface, which in some parts is even broken. But as the climate is less mild than farther west, agriculture is only pursued in a comparatively few sheltered places, and the rearing of cattle and the chace affords subsistence to its scanty population. This part of the plain is covered with immense forests of pines, birch, &c. of which the W. steppes are destitute, and its pastures are also much richer. That portion of the plain which extends N. of the Polar Circle has its surface frozen ten months of the year, and even in July ice is met with at the depth of a foot. It is an immense desert, covered with moss, and interspersed with numerous lakes and swamps. In summer its whole surface is changed into a swamp, and then it is inaccessible. This mossy desert is called tundra. It is worthy of remark, that at the mouth of the Lena, and between it and that of the Indighirka, immense masses of bones, and even entire skeletons of elephants, rhinoceroses, and antediluvian animals, are found imbedded in the ice, which never is dissolved by the rays of the sun.

This plain is drained by numerous rivers, which, descending from the Altai mountains, on the southern border of the plain, traverse it in a northerly direction. Some of them may be enumerated among the largest rivers of the globe. Such are the Obi or Oby, which unites with the Yrtish, and whose whole course rather exceeds 2,000 miles. The Yenesei is still longer; for if we take for its source the Selenga, which falls into the Lake of Baikal, and issues from it under the name of Lower Angara, but changes it afterwards into that of Upper Tunguska, it runs not less than 2,500 miles. The Lena, which is joined by the large tributaries Witim and Aldan, has a course of hardly less than 2,000 miles. Farther E. is the Yana, which flows about 400 m., the Indighirka about 700 miles, and the Kolyma 900 miles.

2. Elevated Table-land of Eastern Asia. The boundary of this extensive region lies near the parallel of 500 N. lat. between 829 and 1220 E. long. On the W. the boundary is formed by a line extending first from 500 N. lat. and 820 E. long, to 40° N. lat. and 72° E. long., and hence nearly duc S. to 342. From this point it