quently more than 1-3 of the exportation of manufactured | provinces, Ifl. 30 kr.), up to 1,500 florins (1507.) per annum silks, which averages 144 millions of fr. (Calculation as the maximum. 5th. The class tax is imposed on all of M. Arlé Dufour, In Lyons.) Now the export of silk from the Milanese direct to France, in 1837, amounted to 1,227,000 libre Piccole, which may be estimated at 30,000,000 fr., or 4 3-8th parts of the whole exportation; and of the 1,383,000 lib., exported to Switzerland and Germany, no doubt a considerable portion found its way also into that country. The exports to England, in 1837, were,

Of this sum (about 50 millions of pounds sterling), (fl., c. m.) 137,000 the old debt bears interest in the depreciated paper currency; and the whole of that charge is redeemable by lottery, 5 millions of florins being annually drawn by lot, and either paid off or placed in silver value at the option of the holder. The new loans bear interest at 5. 4. and 3 per cent.; and three are lottery loans, which will expire in the years 1840, 1841, and 1860. Of the total given, above 50,000,000 fl. stands in the name of the Commissioners of the Sinking Fund; and into this fund the proceeds of the national domains, which 813 9 are annually sold, are paid. The amount of the depre183 49 ciated paper currency, still in circulation, must be added to the sum of the debt: in 1838, it was 16,000,000 (about (fl., c. m.) 996 58 640,0007.). The sum in which the government is indebted to the bank for the portion of this currency, which that corporation redeemed by exchanging their notes for it, has not been officially published, but is stated by the writer of a letter on the bank affairs in the Augsburg Gazette, 27th March, 1838, to amount to 140,000,000 fl. in silver.

The same writer states, that of 90 executions which took place in the other provinces of the empire between 1824 and 1828, 28 were summary executions without trial. This period, as well as the one regarding Hungary, does not embrace the years in which the cholera raged in the different provinces, during which period martial law was, to a great extent, established. The police board occupies, with respect to the tribunals of law, a similar position to that occupied by the emperor's cabinet in respect to the council of state. The preventive power entrusted to it being naturally one which no law either prescribes or controls, it is a formidable instrument. The political and local exercise of its authority is very strict in Austria, and includes not only the preservation of public order, but the permitting strangers to reside in any part of the empire, the allowing subjects themselves to change their places of abode or to travel, passports being requisite even in the country itself, and frequently only procured after long delay and much trouble. The sanatory police is on an extensive scale, and is perhaps as well managed as it can be in so extensive an empire by a public board. The police of the provinces is entrusted in the large towns to a board whose officers are appointed by the crown, in small towns to the magistracy; in the country the captain of the circle unites these functions with his judicial and administrative powers.

monasteries in Austria, Styria, Illyria, Bohemia, and Moravia. Hungary has 22 abbots with endowments, 124 titular abbots, 41 endowed and 29 titular prebendaries, and 3 college foundations. Transylvania has 3 titular abbots, and upwards of 150 monasteries and convents. In Galicia 70 monasteries are counted. The Greek United Church has 1 abp. and 1 bishop in Gallicia, and 5 bishops in Hungary. The Arminian Catholic Church have an abp. at Lemberg. The Archbp. of Carlowitz is head of the Greek Church, with io bishops and 60 protopapas (deans). The Protestants, who, in the greater part of the empire, are only tolerated (not being allowed to build churches with steeples, to use bells, or keep parish registers independent of the Catholic parish clergy), are placed under 10 superintendents for the Lutherans, and 9 superintendents for Calvinists. In Hungary and Transylvania, the Protestants choose their superintendents, who are controlled by district inspectors. The greater part of the Magyar inhabitants of Hungary are Calvinists, and Protestants enjoy, in that kingdom and its dependent lands, equal rights with the Catholics. The Unitarians are tolerated, or rather recognised by law, in Transylvania; where they have a superintendent, and form 164 parishes. The Roman Catholic religion is the dominant one throughout the empire; and in case of dispute, the right to the tithes is assumed to be vested in the parish priest. The church is, however, far from being possessed of the tithes to a large extent; its wealth consists in endowments of land, or revenues charged upon estates; and its hierarchy may be considered as richer even than that of Great Britain. The richest see is the Primacy of Hungary; the Archbishopric of Olmütz being next in importance. On the suppression of the convents under Joseph II., a portion of the confiscated lands and revenues was appropriated to form a fund for improving the salaries of the parish clergy; the minimum of whose incomes has been fixed at 300 fl. for a parish priest, and 150 for a chaplain or curate. This fund is nominally under the control of the bishop, as far as concerns his diocese; yet estates belonging to it are constantly advertised for public sale. The united Greek and Armenian churches are assi

Prisons, &c. The Austrian prisons have attained a melancholy celebrity of late years. They are divided into three classes: state prisons, for political offenders, the chief of which are the Spielberg at Brunn in Moravia, Kuff. stein in Tyrol, Munkaes in Hungary, Lemberg, Milan, Venice, &c.; houses of correction (Zucht-milated to the Roman Catholic church, as far as hauser) in all the chief towns, in which criminals are kept to hard labour (those in irons are sent to the fortresses); and houses of detention, under the care of the police, in which persons who are arrested are kept before and during the judicial proceedings. A large prison, on an improved plan, has recently been erected in a healthy situation in Vienna; and it is usual to give every needy prisoner, on his discharge, a small sum of money, to keep him from the temptations of momentary indigence. In 1837, 234 individuals received this relief, the sum distributed amounting to 923 fl. In Prague the prison seems one of the best managed. "At the close of 1837, the number of convicts is stated to have been 608 (446 males, 162 females); and the average proceeds of the labour of the prisoners, who follow their respective trades, was, for 6 years, 11,845 fl. (1,2001.) annually.

The Church, Clergy, &c.-The Austrian clergy are both numerous and powerful, although their wealth has been much diminished by the confiscations and secularisations of the Emperor Joseph II. They consist of 11 Roman Catholic archbishops, 1 Greek united abp., 1 Greek schismatic abp., 1 Arminian abp. The Roman church has further 59 bishops, with chapters and consistories, and 43 abbots of richly endowed

their parishes extend. The schismatic Greeks possess a fund, vested in bonum nationis, in Hungary, which is managed by the Metropolitan and three assistants. The Protestant confessions have no endowed churches or parishes out of Hungary and Transylvania; the clergy elsewhere being chosen and supported by their flocks. The right of presentation to livings is vested, in general, in the landed proprietors and various corporations, as in England. The parishes in the gift of the crown, as heir to the right of the suppressed convents, are numerous. The emperor nominates all the bishops, with the exception of the Archbishop of Olmütz, and seeks the sanction of the pope through the medium of the imperial ambassador at Rome. The Hungarian bishops enter upon the exercise of their secular functions as magnates before the papal consent is received. All titular bishops, as well as all abbots and prelates in Hungary, are likewise nominated by the crown. The chapter of Olmütz enjoys the privilege granted by Wrattislaw II. of Bohemia, in 1080, of choosing their archbishop from among their own members.

The Austrian church property throughout all the provinces, except Hungary and Transylvania, is very highly taxed; and the state inherits a moiety of the personal property of every Ca

tholic clergyman; it being of course sup- | ordained not to exceed 17 fl. 46 kr. for every posed that he has no direct natural heirs. But 100 fl. which the land produced. This meathe line of policy respecting the church of Rome, sure was indispensable to enable the peasants of which the emperor Joseph laid the foundation, to meet the heavy taxes, which, as we have shown has not of late been adhered to; new religious below, average 12 per cent. of the gross proorders having been suffered to establish them- duce. At the same time, the peasant's property selves, and even the Jesuits have been permitted in the land he held, from whatever lord, was openly to settle in several provincial towns within declared indisputable; and though the latter these few years. According to the most recent may seize upon his stock and moveables, he cancensus, the numbers attached to the different not eject for arrears of rent, unless the land be sects are as follow: held on lease or tenure; which is by no means Roman Catholics common in Austria.

Greeks, United

Disunited

Protestants

Jews

Unitarians

Sectarians

25,704,119

3,628,158
2,901,142

3,536,849

667,139

45,131
2,891

These numbers are, however, for the present amount of the population, underrated; especially the estimate of the Protestants, for want of authenticated returns of the population of Hungary.

A very great difference is found, as may be supposed, in the state of civilization of the different provinces. Among the higher classes, in the great capitals, this difference is of course nearly imperceptible; the universities and the better institutions for instruction being open to the inhabitants of all provinces, and being arranged throughout on a uniform plan. Another cause of this similarity in the larger towns is the great proportion of Germans found among Classes of Inhabitants, and State of the Provinces. the trading classes, even in the Slavonic and MaThe three classes of nobles, citizens, and pea-gyar (Hungarian) districts, and who are everysants are strictly defined in all the provinces. where distinguished in that class for intelligence, The nobility is both numerous and rich in Aus- sobriety, and industry. The mass of the people tria, where estates are generally entailed ; and the may, perhaps, be said to be most advanced in higher charges of the court, the army, and the the Italian provinces, where agriculture is carried church, are reserved for this class. The memto the highest perfection, and both skill and bers of the male sex of the various noble families activity contribute to forward industrial operathroughout the empire, were estimated, in 1835, tions. The next in rank, in point of intelliat 250,000. Of these, 163,000 belonged to gence, are unquestionably the inhabitants of the Hungary, 24,900 to Galicia, and 2,260 to Bo- German provinces; then come the Bohemians, hemia. The latter country counted 14 princely Silesians, and Moravians, who occupy almost families, 172 families of counts, 80 of barons, and exclusively the manufacturing provinces. The 100 of knights. Their total incomes were esti-Illyrians may be looked on as not inferior to mated at 18,000,000 fl. (1,800,0004.) * The privilege of manorial rights can only be enjoyed by a noble in Austria. These include the right of presentation to livings and schools on his estates, and the right to hold courts of justice in the first instance. Other privileges are those of peculiar tribunals, before which only he can be cited; the freedom from the conscription; and the right of sitting in the provincial estates of each province in which he is qualified. These immunities are also enjoyed by the newly-created nobility, among whom not a few profess the Jewish religion; but the court draws a marked distinction between old families and those recently ennobled. As the patent is given without difficulty to all who are willing to purchase it, the price thus paid by citizens who wish to become landholders, may be looked on as a tax laid upon the transfer of estates. Persons not of noble birth, who do not purchase a patent of this kind, pay a portion of the taxes double. The peasant is personally free throughout the empire; and an appeal being allowed from the manorial court of his lord to the Circle court, his condition is daily improving, and his rights and property obtain more respect. Yet the circumstance that, in the greater part of the empire, the rent of his cottage and field are paid in manual labour (Robot), leaves him in a state of deplorable dependence; and in some provinces, the possession of this claim on the labour of the lower classes disinclines the higher orders from forwarding the mental and moral improvement of the peasants. On the introduction of the present system of direct taxation by the Empress Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II., an arbitrary regulation of the dues claimed by the landlords was effected, and the total amount which a landlord could demand, whether paid in money, service, or kind, was The nobility of Hungary counted 4 families of princes, 84 of

counts, 76 of barons, and 390 of knights.

It is

their Styrian neighbours; but a thin population
and a rugged soil, together with the fact that
their language is not a medium for the circula-
tion of knowledge, keep the Slavonians in both
provinces back, and they cannot be ranked higher
than the Poles or Moravian inhabitants of Hun-
gary. The rude and almost nomadic life led by
a large portion of the Magyars of Hungary, will
be noticed in treating of that country.
partly ascribable to the nature of the soil they in-
habit; and partly to the faulty laws which throw
impediments in the way of their improvement.
The Dalmatians stand on the lowest footing of
civilization in Europe. The want of a central
point of national interest to which the inhabitants
of all the provinces might look, and which might
direct the current of popular feeling in each to
the common advantage of all, is strikingly felt;
and each province having its own representation
by estates, powerless as these bodies are (with
the exception of the Hungarian Diet), and many
having a different form of government from the
others, every one is inclined to look upon itself
as having separate interests from the rest. The
effects of this system have of late years grown
especially perceptible in the repeated applications
made by the Bohemians, Poles, and Hungarians,
to have their respective languages exclusively
used in public business, and in the provincial
schools.

As every province forms a separate land, each has its peculiar language or dialect, and its distinguishing customs and habits. Of the Slavonic languages, the Polish possesses the richest literature; but the Bohemian has of late years been highly cultivated, and forms the written language of the Moravians and Slowaks of the N. W. counties of Hungary. The dialect of Carniola has been methodized, and is grammatically taught as the written language of Illyria and Croatia. The ephemeral existence of

the Illyrian kingdom established by Napoleon ligious turn, which they not only evince by a resufficed to call forth the powers of a lyric poet of gular attendance at church, and following the considerable merit, named Wodnik, who wrote frequent processions, but by assembling in great in this dialect. The Slavonian nations have all numbers at the stated periods for the annual pilthe distinguishing characteristics of ardent feel-grimages, which are mostly made to the churches ings and sanguinity of temperament, which of the Virgin Mary. The chief of these places makes them more easily elated and sooner de- of resort, Maria Zell in Styria, is annually visited pressed than their neighbours the Germans. by more than 100,000 devotees. The next in They are fond of music; and every district has its importance is perhaps the shrine at Calvaria in national airs, which are often of great antiquity, Galicia, to which pilgrims annually flock from and usually plaintive. Among the Slavonians, Bohemia, Silesia, Poland, and Hungary. The the Poles are distinguished by a martial disposi- pilgrimages are however said to be, like the tion and love of show. The national costume is field preachings" formerly held in Scotland, now only kept up amongst the peasantry, whose any thing but conducive to morality. The Sunwinter dresses especially are tasteful, and even day evening is everywhere devoted to festive enelegant. In the other Slavonic nations of joyment, and indulgence in the wine-cup in such the empire, the love of ornament is less re- provinces as produce this beverage. Beer and markable, the national spirit having sunk in the whisky are the common drink of the northern long lapse of time during which they have been provinces, the latter especially in Galicia and dependent. No Slavonic dialect is used in the Hungary. Smoking is considered an indiscourts of justice or in public instruction in pensable luxury in all the provinces north of the the higher schools of the empire. The German Alps. peasants wear the dress commonly met with all over Germany, with varieties in the colour and head gear, in nearly every village. The Austrian women wear caps or bonnets made of gold lace and decorated with spangles. In Tyrol the German costume is most picturesque. The German language is that used in transacting public business in the German and Slavonian provinces, and in the universities on the north side of the Alps. The extensive range and high excellence of the productions of the German authors in the fields of literature and science, render this language peculiarly adapted to be the medium for the diffusion of knowledge; and this circumstance lends a moral ascendency to the Germans, whose numerical weight is not great in comparison with the other nations of the empire, which they will long continue to hold, if they do not lose sight of the foundations on which it is based.

The Magyars, or inhabitants of the Hungarian plains, of Tartar descent, are a high-spirited race, warmly attached to their national habits and rights. Their national costume is the most splendid in Europe, and every family wears its distinguishing colours. The rich Dollmann (Hussar jacket) and the tasteful Attila (a frockcoat, trimmed with fur) are only worn on state occasions by the nobles; but the tight pantaloon and short boot is the usual dress of the peasant, who also wears a blue jacket and a low broadbrimmed hat. Though fond of music the Hungarians are no musicians: the national dances are often highly pantomimic; and the Magyar, who is seldom seen to smile, expresses the excitement of his feelings, whether in joy or sorrow, in dancing. The Magyar and Latin languages are those used in the courts of justice and in the public offices. The dress of the Walachian peasantry, on festive occasions, is highly ornamented and very becoming. The Italian costume is both rich and elegant; especially the head-dresses of the women, which are more tasteful than those worn on the north side of the Alps. In the conflict for superiority between the Germans and Italians, neither nation perhaps does sufficient justice to the good qualities of the other; but the northern Italian must be allowed the merit of displaying those of continence, sobriety, and industry, in a high degree, though he be less the slave of form than his German neighbour. The Italian language is used in the government offices, in the courts of justice, and in public instruction, in the Italian provinces.

The peasantry in every province have a re

With respect to the comforts of life, the Hungarian, Italian, and German peasants are the most advantageously situated. The largest share of landed property falls to the Hungarian, and for the most part he receives the best remuneration. In Italy, where the peasant is hardly ever a landowner, unremitting industry, and a judicious division of labour, improve the condition of the mass of the people. Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia rank on a level with the German provinces in the most improved districts. The Galician peasant is the lowest on the scale but one - the Dalmatian; the province of the latter forming a melancholy exception to the rapid improvement which the others are making.

Provision for the Poor. A regular tax for the support of the poor is nowhere levied,— each parish is by law bound to support its own poor; but as the standard of pauperism is, in all cases, very low, the charge is nowhere burdensome. The large towns have poor-houses, supported partly by revenues from foundations, partly by voluntary contributions; and on extraordinary occasions, the emperor or the government supply a sum from the public revenues to meet their exigencies. The total sum expended in Vienna in 1837 by the public institutions of charity, (including the hospitals and asylums for the blind, deaf and dumb, and foundlings,) amounted to 1,352,124 fl., with which 62,133 in dividuals were relieved. (See VIENNA.) We have likewise seen a list of the donations by the King of Hungary, the Empress, and the Archduchess Sophia, in the year 1834,which amounted to 21,530 Al. Savings banks have been introduced into the different provinces with great success. At the close of 1835 the Vienna savings' bank held,

11,508,755 fl. at 4 per cent.
1,999,564 at 31
383,991 at 3

13,892,310 fl.,

or about 1,400,000l., standing in the names of 57,063 individuals. In 1836 the savings' bank at Prague held 5,200,460 fl. in the names of 17,704 individuals.

Among the institutions for ameliorating the state of the poor, the hospitals stand in the first rank. The exertions of the Emperor Joseph II., to improve the medical department of the army, had a very advantageous influence over the medical establishments throughout the empire. In the Allgemeines Kranken Haus, at