A A.

A A, the name of some small rivers in France, Switzer- | land, the Netherlands, Hanover, Saxony, &c. The wide diffusion of the name seems to prove, as has been judiciously remarked, that it has some general signification applicable to all the rivers to which it belongs. Probably it may be derived from the Celtic Ack or Ac, water. There are, indeed, two small German rivers, one of which falls into the lake of Constance, and the other into the Iller, that are called Aach.

AALBORG, an old town of Denmark, cap. diocese and bailiwick, and the principal town in Jutland, situated about 17 m. from the sea, on the S. side of the channel of the Lymfiord, or great internal gulf, entering from the Cattegat, near where it begins to expand into an extensive lake. Lat. 57° 2′32′′ N., long. 9° 56′ 41′′ E. Pop. 7,050. It is intersected by two small rivers, and surrounded by ditches; it is the seat of a bishopric, has a gymnasium or college, an episcopal library with 11,000 vols., a school of navigation, and an hospital and two workhouses. Exclusive of distilleries and breweries, it has manufactures of soap, fish-oil, fire-arms, refined sugar, leather, silk, &c., with a considerable amount of shipping and trade: principal exports corn, flour, fish, butter, spirits, &c. Formerly it was accessible to large vessels; but owing to the gradual filling up of the channel of the Lymfiord, it is now accessible only to the smaller class of inerchantmen, or those not drawing more than 9 or 10 feet water.(Catteau, Tableau des Etats Danois, tom. i. p. 88.) Aalborg means Eeltown; a name derived from the immense number of eels that are found in the waters in its vicinity.

AALEN, a town of Wirtemberg, circ. Jaxt, cap. bailiwick, formerly a free imperial city, on the Kocher, 42 m. E. Stutgard. Pop. 2,400. It is surrounded by walls flanked with high towers; has manufactures of wool and cotton, and breweries. There are extensive forests in the environs, and iron mines.

AALSMER, a village of Holland, E. side of the sea of Haarlem, 10 miles S. W. Amsterdam. Pop. 1,800.

AALTEN, a village of the Netherlands, Guelderland, 7 miles S.S.W. Groenlo. Pop. 3,520.

AAR, a river of Switzerland, the most considerable in that country after the Rhone and Rhine. Its principal sources are in the glaciers of the Schreikhorn and Grimsel mountains in Berne, near the source of the Rhone. Having united its different arms near Meyringen, it flows thence through the lakes of Brienz and Thun. Escaping from the latter, it takes a northerly direction till it reaches Berne; it then turns W. till having received its tributary, the Saane; it flows N. E. by Arberg, Soleure, Aarau, &c., till it unites with the Rhine, opposite to Waldshut. Its most important tributaries are, on the right, the Emme, Reuss, and Limmat; and on the left, the Saane, already noticed, and the Thiele. Its course is about 170 m. It becomes navigable on emerging from lake Thun. In the upper part of its course it dashes along with great fury, and is precipitated over several waterfalls. This also is the name of two small rivers in Waldeck. (Coxe's Switzerland, Letters 29, 30. &c.)

AARAU, or ARAU, a town of Switzerland, cap. cant. Aargau, on the Aar, 1,140 feet above the level of the sea, 23 m. S. E. Basle, lat. 47° 23′ 35′′ N., long. 6° 2′ 55′′ E. Pop. 3,100. It is well built, has a gymnasium, a school of art, a seminarium or normal school for the instruction of teachers, a public or cantonal library, a society of national instruction, &c., with manufactures of silk and cotton, a cannon foundery, and bleach-fields. The

AARONSBURGH.

peace, which terminated the civil war of 1712, was con

cluded here.

AARGAU, or ARGOVIA, one of the Swiss cantons, separated by the Rhine from Baden, having the canton of Zurich on the E., that of Lucern on the S., and Soleure and Basil on the W. Area 502 sq. m. Pop. (1836) 182,755, having increased from 144,093 in 1803. The mountains in this canton do not attain to any very great height, and it possesses a very considerable extent of fertile land. It is traversed by the Aar, whence it derives its name, and by its important tributaries the Reuss and Limmat. The country is well cultivated, and the produce of wheat and other grain exceeds the consumption there are numerous vineyards, but the wine is inferior; with abundance of garden and orchard fruit. The rearing of cattle and sheep is not found to be productive, but they are advantageously fattened in the meadows, which are both extensive and excellent. Manufactures have made great progress. The principal is that of cotton, next to it is silk, and then follow linen, strawplatting, &c. Cottons are not woven by power-looms, but mostly in the cottages of the peasants, or small labouring farmers, as has been the case with linen in Ireland. But though this sort of double employment has hitherto afforded a considerable degree of security against the injurious influence of the vicissitudes incident to agriculture and manufactures, the presumption is that the rapid progress of mechanical improvements in other countries will force its abandonment, and that the Swiss will have to employ machinery in the weaving as well as in the spinning of cotton, or be compelled to abandon the former department. This canton is especially distinguished by the attention it has paid to education. Every district of 120 children must have at least one primary and one superior school. In every circle (Bezirk), the population being from 15,000 to 20,000, there are from 5 to 6 secondary schools. There is also in the capital a gymnasium, a school of arts, and a normal school for the instruction of teachers. The expense of the schools is defrayed partly by the communes and partly by the state funds. In the gymnasium and school of arts the state provides for the payment of 14 professors and their assistants. About 3-5ths of the population are Catholics and 2-5ths Protestants. The public revenue amounts to about 45,000l. a-year; but as nearly the half is derived from state property, interest, &c., it is immediately seen that taxation is very light. The cantonal contingent to the diet is fixed at 2,410 men, and 52,212 Swiss fr. For an account of the government, see art. SWITZERLAND. Principal towns Aarau, Laufenberg, Baden, Zoffingen, &c.-(Bowring on the Commerce of Switzerland, p. 80.) AARHUUS, a sea-port town of Denmark, cap. diocese and bailiwick of the same name, on the E. coast of Jutland, lat. 56° 9′ 35′′ N., long. 10° 14' E. Pop. 6,765. It is pretty well built, has a large cathedral founded in 1201, a lyceum, a museum of antiquities, and a valuable diocesan library. Its commerce and industry have increased considerably of late years. The exports consist principally of agricultural produce; with spirits and beer, the produce of its distilleries and breweries; and cloth and gloves. Considerable sums have recently been expended on the improvement of its port, which has been rendered one of the best in Jutland. Packets sail regularly between it and Callundberg, on the west coast of Zealand. AARONSBURGH, a small town of the United States. Centre Co., Pennsylvania. B

11

AASZY, the Orontes of Greek geographers, which see. AATYL. A town or village of Syria, in the Haouran or Great Plain, extending S. from Damascus and E. from the mountains beyond Jordan, lat. 32° 15′ N., long. 36° 33′ E. The inhabitants consist of Druses (see Libanus and Syria), of the number probably of 200 or 300. Though now insignificant, the remains of ancient grandeur in its vicinity prove that Aatyl was once a place of importance. These remains occupy a circuit of a mile, and in many instances are inhabited by the present population. W. of the town a perfect arch of very fine workmanship, with broken pillars and friezes, marks the site of a small but elegant temple. On the S. another teinple, almost entire, with a portico of four columns and an entrance beautifully and elaborately carved, has been converted into a private residence.

Aatyl is 54 m. (direct distance) S. S. E. Damascus, and 48 m. E. Lake of Tabaria, the Genesareth of the Bible. -(Robinson's Travels in Palestine and Syria, vol. ii. pp. 155, 156.)

ABADEH, a town of Persia, prov. Fars. 115 m. N. Shiraz. Pop. 5,000. It is surrounded by walls in a state of decay; and is defended by a large square fort, now containing the whole population. It has suffered severely from the frequent contests for the Persian throne during the 18th century; but it is still environed by gardens, and sends fruit to Shiraz.

ABAKAN, a river of Siberia, an affluent of the Jenisei, which it joins, 16 miles S. Abakansk.

ABAKANSK, a town of Siberia, gov. Jenisscisk, on the Abakan near the Jenissei. The climate is mild; but it is notwithstanding a poor miserable place, and would be wholly unworthy notice were it not that on mount Isik, and other places in its environs, are found some of the most remarkable of those singular remains of former civilisation that are met with in many places of Southern Siberia. They consist principally of tumuli or tombs, which frequently contain ear-rings, bracelets, and other ornaments and utensils of gold, silver, and copper, with iron stirrups, &c. Near Abakansk are statues of men from 7 to 9 feet high, and covered with hieroglyphics, of which unfortunately no explanation has yet been given. -(Malte Brun, Balb. ed. 1837, p. 806.; Gmelin, Voyage en Siberie, cap. 63, 64, &c.) ABANCAY, cap. prov. of same name in Peru, 60 miles N. W. Cuzco.

ABANO or ALBANO, a village of Austrian Italy, prov. Padua, 10 m. S. W. Padua. Pop. 3,000. This village derives its entire celebrity from its hot springs and muds. It is situated near the Euganean hills, in a place marked with some low eminences, whence issue copious springs of water capable at their source of boiling an egg quite hard. The waters are partly employed to prepare and soften mud, partly to supply the baths, and partly go to waste, or turn a mill which revolves amid volumes of smoke. They are supposed to be efficacious in cases of palsy, rheumatism, and a variety of complaints. The inud is applied hot to the affected part, somewhat after the manner of taking a stucco cast; and the baths are regarded principally as an auxiliary to the "dirty" application. The season is in the heat of summer; and, according to Mr. Rose, the accommodations for company are very deficient.

These baths were well known to, and much used by, the Romans. They were called Patavine Aqua, the principal source being distinguished by the name of Aponus fons, whence their modern name has evidently

been derived.

Aponus terris ubi fumifer exit.

Lucan, vii. 1. 194. There is a very full account of these baths in Rose's Letters on Northern Italy, i. pp. 59-70.; see also Cramer's Ancient Italy, i. p. 123.

ABAZIA, a country in the region of Caucasus, in the Russian gov. of that name, which see.

ABB, a town of Arabia, in the Dsjebel, or mountain land of Yemen, lat. 130 58 N., long. 44° 15' E., 95 m. S. Sanaa, 73 m. N. E. Mocha, and 104 m. N. W. Aden. Number of houses said to be about 800, which at an average of 6 individuals to each gives a pop. of nearly 5,000. It is built on the summit of a mountain; is surrounded by a strong and well-built wall; and overlooks a well-watered (for Arabia) and extremely fertile country. Houses (as usual in the mountain towns of Yemen) of stone; streets well paved, which, in this country, is very uncommon. An aqueduct conveys water from a mountain at a little distance on the N. to a large reservoir in front of the principal mosque.-(Niebuhr, Des. de l'Ar. par. ii. p. 208.)

ABBEVILLE, a thriving, industrious town, in the N.W. of France, dep. Somme, cap. arrond. on the navigable river of that name, 25 m N. W. Amiens, lat." 50° 7'4" N., long. 1° 59′ 58′′ E. Pop. 13,842. It is neat and well built; is regularly fortified on the system of Vauban; and has, exclusive of the old Gothic church of St. Vulfran, several public buildings worthy of notice

and a public library. A fine cloth manufactory was established here in 1669, by a Dutchman of the name of Van Robais, under the auspices of Colbert; and Abbeville has since continued to be distinguished as one of the most industrious towns in France. Besides black cloths of the best quality, with serges, barracans, &c., there are produced calicoes and stockings, sackings, packthread, cordage, jewellery, &c. It has also establishments for the spinning of wool, print works and bleaching works, tanneries, soap works, a glass work, a paper manufactory, &c. The tide rises in the Somme about 7 feet, and vessels of from 100 to 150 tons come up to town. Being situated in the centre of a fruitful country, and communicating by canals and roads with all the surrounding districts, Abbeville has a considerable commerce.-(Hugo, France Pittoresque, Dép. Somme.)

ABBIATEGRASSO, a town of Venetian Lombardy, prov. Pavia, on the canal of Bereguardo, 14 m. W.S.W. Milan. Pop. 4,600. It is fortified; and its position has made it be always regarded of considerable importance in a military point of view.

ABB'S HEAD (ST.), a promontory on the E. coast of Scotland, being the most southerly point of the Frith of Forth, lat. 55° 54′ 50′′ N., long. 28′ 20′′ W.

ABELA, ABIL, or ABILA, a town of Syria, in the Haouran, on the Sheriat-el-Mandhour (ane. Hieromax), one of the largest affluents of the Jordan, lat 34° 47′ N., long. 360 E. It is now in a ruinous and dilapidated state, having probably not more than from 100 to 150 inhabitants; but formerly it was a place of considerable importance, being the capital of and giving its name to one of the six departments (Abilene) into which the Romans divided the country E. of Jordan. Some broken pillars and overthrown columns evince its ancient grandeur; but none of its old buildings remain entire, and it is preserved from desertion only by its vicinity to the water, which renders it a desirable residence for the few Arab families by whom it is still occupied. — (Robinson, Traveis in Palestine and Syria, ii. 122. 214.)

ABENOJA, a town of Spain, prov. La Mancha, 20 m. S. W. Ciudad Real.

ABER, a sea-port and village of Wales, Caernarvon, where there is a ferry to the island of Anglesea, 9 m. Conway. Pop. 552.

ABERBROTHOCK, cr ARBROATH, a sea-port and manufacturing town of Scotland, co. Angus or Forfar, at the mouth of the Brothock water, lat. 56° 34′ N., long. 20 35 W. Pop. of borough and parish in 1831, 13,795. Number of 10%, houses in borough 184; Parl. constituency in 1837, 445. Arbroath unites with Brechin, Bervie, and Montrose, in returning a m. to H. of C. It has a parish church and two chapels of ease, with churches for Episcopalians, Seceders, Methodists, and Independents. The other public buildings are the town-house, the tradeshall, the public schools, and the signal tower, which communicates with the Bell-Rock lighthouse, distant about 12 miles. The harbour is secure, though small, and of difficult entrance. The town, which is rapidly increasing, owes all its prosperity to the flax manufacture; nearly half the population being employed in the spinning, dressing, weaving, and bleaching of coarse linen goods. Some of the mills are driven by the little rivulet that intersects the town; but steam mills are numerous, both in the town and the vicinity. Here are the ruins of an abbey, founded in honour of Thomas à Becket, in 1178, by William the Lion, king of Scotland, who, on his death in 1214 was interred within its precincts. It was de

stroyed in 1560.

ABERCONWAY, or CONWAY. See CONWAY. ABERDEEN, a maritime co. Scotland, bounded N. and E. by the German Ocean, S. by the cos. of Perth, Forfar, and Kincardine, and W. by Banff, Elgin, and Inverness. Extreme length 86 m. from N. to S., and 42 from E. to W. Area 1,260,800 acres. In the southwestern division, called the district of Mar, are some of the highest mountains of Scotland. Ben Macdhu rises to the height of 4,327 feet above the level of the sea, being only 43 feet lower than Ben Nevis; and several of the other mountains are but little inferior in altitude. About a fifth part of the surface consists of high mountainous tracts; and these, with hills, extensive moors, mosses, and waste lands, occupy nearly two thirds of the entire country. The arable land lies principally in the eastern parts. Principal rivers Dee and Don; and besides these are the Deveron, Bogie, Ythan, Urie, Ugie, &c. Limestone abounds in various places; there are quarries of excellent slate; and millstones are found of good quality. Vast quantities of granite are shipped at Aberdeen, particularly for London, where it is used in paving the streets. The mountains of Braemar contain numbers of coloured crystals, or cairngorms; and some real topazes have been met with. The winters, owing to the great extent of sea coast, are mild; but the summers are usually short and cold. Agriculture is prosecuted with much more spirit and success than might have been sup posed. Oats is the principal crop, about 160,000 acres being supposed to be sown with that grain; barley is also

is managed by a board of trustees, was for the year 1837-8, 15,976l. 9s. 4d.; the ordinary expenditure 8,7134. 5s.; the expenditure on works in progress 9,226l. 5s. 10d. From 1810 to 1838 inclusive, there have been expended on the harbour 456,016/. 16s. 10d., of which sum the interest of money borrowed amounted to 156,466l. 16s. 6d. From the great expenditure on new streets, and the harbour, the affairs of the burgh became involved in 1817, and a disfranchisement ensued, but no permanent loss was sustained, and for many years it has been in good credit. In 1838 the revenue was 17,5071. 10s. 6d. ; the expenditure 16,651. 5s. Ed., of which about 7,500l. was for the interest of borrowed money. In 1832, the number of houses was 2,588, of which 1,289 were of the value of 10l. and upwards; since that year, Aberdeen returns one m. to the H. of C. being no longer associated with Arbroath, Brechin, Bervie, and Montrose. In 1837 the constituency was 2,539, having increased from 2,166 in 1834. ABERDEEN (OLD), an ancient city, situated about a mile N. of Aberdeen, with which it is nearly connected by a village called Spital. In former times it was the seat of a bishoprick, the see of Mortlach having been removed to it in 1154. In 1498 it received a charter from James IV., under which are elected a provost and 18 other members; in 1715, it became disfranchised, and again in 1723. It is a small place consisting merely of a single street, has no trade, and very little property, its importance depending entirely upon its university. Population in 1831, 1483. The revenue in 1832 was about 431. 5s., the expenditure 147. 6s. 6d., and there was no debt, but a surplus. Seven trades are incorporated. The chief edifices are the college, cathedral, and bridges across the Don, near which the place is situated. The buildings of King's College have an antique appearance, and are of different periods; from recent additions and alterations they are in good repair, about 6,000l. having been expended upon them. The library and chapel are attached to a lofty square tower, surmounted by an imperial crown of open stone work. The cathedral of St. Machar, or Macarius, after whom the parish is named, is an ancient Gothic edifice, chiefly of granite, commenced in the 14th century; the choir, transept, and great central tower have been demolished or fallen down upwards of a century ago; the nave remains, and is used as the parish church; at the west end are two finely proportioned stone spires; the roof of the interior also presents a curious rolic. Near its mouth the Don forms a small haven, which does not admit any vessels but of a few tons' burden; a little above is the ancient bridge, erected by King Robert Bruce, of one Gothic arch, 70 feet in span, crossing a rocky and woody ravine in which the river flows; between it and the sea is a new bridge of 5 arches, opened in 1830, the expense of which was defrayed from the funds of the old and less convenient structure. The Universities of Aberdeen are two in number, in each of which one college has been founded. The most ancient is that of Old Aberdeen, founded by Bishop William Elphinston in 1494, under a papal bull of Pope Alexander VI.; its buildings have been noticed above. It early received the name of King's College, instead of that of the Virgin Mary, to whom it was originally dedicated. The other and later seminary was established in 1593, and is called Marischal College, from its founder George Keith, Earl Marischal. King's College has a principal, sub-principal, and 9 professorships. A sum of about 1770. arising from charitable foundations, is annually distri

For

buted in different proportions among 134 students, who are called bursars. Marischal College has a principal, 10 professors, and 2 lecturers on humanity and Scots law; in it are also taught medical classes, by 5 lecturers, appointed by both colleges. About 1,200l. is appropriated to bursaries, distributed in various amounts among 107 students. The attendance of students at each college is about equal; those of divinity hear prelections in both, the distance between them being a few yards more than a mile. In session 1837-8, the aggregate number of students in arts, divinity, law, and medicine, was about 700. Both universities have chancellors and rectors and exercise their powers independently of each other; various efforts have been made to unite them into one establishment, but as yet without success. Although their bursaries are numerous, their other revenues are very small. merly the university of Aberdeen was entitled to copies of all works entered at Stationers' Hall; but in 1836 they relinquished the privilege for an annual payment of 2421. 14s. At present their libraries are exceedingly defective; in Marischal College there is a small museum, an observatory, and an extensive apparatus for teaching natural philosophy. The education given in these seminaries has been highly useful in disseminating knowledge over the N. of Scotland, and raising its intellectual state; particularly in improving the character of the parochial schoolmasters, who having been all at college, are superior to many of their brethen in the southern parts of the country. The cheapness of the education, and the number of bursaries, most of which are given by comparative trial, are inducements to attend; the fees paid by a student who is not a bursar do not amount to more than about 6. yearly, on the average of 4 years' study in the curriculum of arts; and respectable board may be obtained for about 251. or 304. during the session which commences in the last Monday of October, and ends at the beginning of April, without vacations. Many eminent men have been professors in these universities; among whom may be mentioned Dr. Reid, the author of the Inquiry into the Human Mind; Dr. Gerard; Principal Campbell, author of the Philosophy of Rhetoric, and the new Translation of the Gospels; Dr. Beattie, the bard of the Minstrel; and Dr. Hamilton, author of the celebrated Essay on the National Debt. The new buildings now raising for Marischal College, in order to replace very ineffective and ruinous ones, are on an extensive and elegant plan; government, through the agency of Mr. Bannerman, M. P. for the city, granted 15,000l. towards their erection, and 7,500l. have been raised by subscription among the alumni and friends of the establishment. It is expected that their completion will lead the way to such additions to the university, and such improvements in teaching science and philosophy as will materially conduce to the benefit of this part of the Empire. (We are indebted for these valuable articles to a gentleman of distinction in Aberdeen.)

ABERDOUR, a parish and village of Scotland, in Fifeshire, on the N. shore of the Frith of Forth, 10 m. N.W. Edinburgh. Pop. 1751.

ABERFOYLE, in Scotland, a parish, and a celebrated pass or narrow valley leading into the Highlands, in the district of Monteith, in the S. W. part of Perthshire. The village or clachan of Aberfoyle in this pass is the scene of some of the most interesting adventures in the novel of Rob Roy. Pop. of parish 660.

ABERGAVENNY, a town of England, co. Monmouth, at the confluence of the Gavenny with the Usk, 14 m. S. W. Monmouth, 123 m. W. by N. London. Pop. of parish 4,230. It is built in a straggling manner; has a fine bridge of 15 arches over the Usk, and some branches

of the woollen manufacture. There are very extensive