of Eastern Asia-about a third part of the whole con- General Aspect-Great Plain. - The first object that invites attention in the general aspect of China is its Great Plain, which, occupying the N.E. part of the country, is above 700 m. in length, and varies in width from 150 to near 500 m. The entire area incloses no less than 6 provinces, and a space of 210,000 sq. m., being 7 times greater than the plain of Lombardy. It is extremely populous; and if we might depend upon the census of 1813, no fewer than 170,000,000 mouths"-the Chinese expression for souls are fed upon its surface! The N. portion, bounded by the great wall, is dry and sandy, and its E. portion, bordering on the sea, and between the two great rivers the Hoang-ho and the Yang-tse-Kiang, by which it is intersected, is low, swampy, and studded with lakes. But notwithstanding these deductions, it may be said to be, on the whole, extremely fertile. It has few trees, but is every where well watered; is cultivated with the utmost care, and produces vast quantities of rice, with cotton, wheat, &c. Mountains and Hills. The mountainous and hilly districts of China comprise about half its area. A portion of the great mountain system of E. Asia entering this country at its N.W. and S. W. frontiers, subsides previously to its termination near the sea-coast into low hills; so that, tracing their course backwards from E. to W., they gradually ascend in terraces or slopes, and give to the S. and W. districts a mountainous, and to the E. divisions a hilly character. N.W., at about 34° N. lat., and 102 E. long., the great Pe-ling range, which has already traversed a portion of Tibet from W. to E., is joined by the Yun-ling chain, which entering China at about 310 N. lat., and 101° E. long., descends southward nearly to the prov. of Yun-nan. These mountains form the easternmost edge of the high table lands of E. Asia, are snow-capped, and inaccessible to the natives; being actually left blank in the Chinese maps. (Davis, i. 131.) | Another ridge, joining the Pe-ling at the same point, takes an opposite or N.N.E. direction, and entering the empire in the prov. of Shen-se, reaches nearly to 1100 of E. long. Another arm of the Pe-ling--the Ta-pa-ling chain-intersects the country from W. to E. to about 1150 E. long.; the Pe-ling itself continuing in its former * We have borrowed this name from the Malays, who call China Tchina. Generally speaking, the Chinese call their empire after the name of the reigning dynasty, so that it has differed at different periods. Being at present governed by the Manchoo dynasty, who adopted the name of Thiring, the Chinese call them elves Thising Jin, that is, men of Thising. (See Klaproth, Mémoires Relatifs à l'Asie, in. 257-270.) Though these are offered as the dimensions of China, with some confidence as to their correctness, it is right to quote the statements of former writers. Lord Macartney (1797) gives the area of China Proper at 1,297,999 sq. m., which has been copied by Pinkerton and Murray Maite Brun (181) gives 1,482,091 sq.m. The Quarterly Review (July 1836), state, at p. 490, that the surface" by the most correct maus may be taken at 1,050,000 sq. in. or 1,075,200,000 acres." Gutzlaff (1838), evidently misled by a misprint in the English translation of Malte-Brun, sets down the area at 537,000 sq. m. (China Opened, i. p. 21.), while at p. 57. of the same work the num ber of sqm, allotted to each province, when added up, amount to 1,297,999, Lord Macartney's estimate. course, gives out various branches which traverse tire central provinces. The other mountain chains join the stupendous Himalaya ridges, and enter the country at its S. W. extremity in the province of Yun-nan, from whose high table lands the most extensive Chinese ranges rise. The Yun-ling, the most southerly of these chains, runs nearly E. into the prov. of Quang-tung. But by far the most important mountain range is the Nan-ling, which branching off from the northern edge of the Yun-nan highlands, runs eastward to within 150 m. of Canton; it then inclines to the N.E. to its termination near the harbour of Ning po; having given out many branches, some of the mountains belonging to which rise above the snow-line. (Macartney's Embassy, pp. 207. 246. 259.; Barrow, li. 241., iii. 29. 122.; Malle-Brun, it. 554, 555.; Davis, p. 130, 131.) Most of the mountains here enumerated end in low hills in the eastern provinces, which consequently comprise the hilly districts. These are the most picturesque portions of China; and being covered with noble forests, crowned with pagodas, and with cities along their sides, give to the country a magniticent aspect, without interrupting its culture. Rivers and Lakes. It is to her mighty rivers that China is chiefly indebted for that fertility which is at once the source of her riches, and of her vast population. The Hoang-ho, or yellow river, and the Yang-tse-Kiang, or "son of the ocean," rank in the first class of rivers. "These two great streams, similar both in rise and destination, descend with rapidity from the great table lands of central Asia, and each of them meets a branch of mountains which forces it to describe an immense circuit, the Hoang-ho to the N., and the Yang-tse-Kiang to the S. Separated by an interval of 1,100 m., the one seems inclined to direct itself to the tropical seas, while the other wanders off among the icy deserts of Mongolia. Suddenly recalled as if by a recollection of their early brotherhood, they approach one another like the Euphrates and Tigris, in ancient Mesopotamia; where, being almost conjoined by lakes and canals, they terminate, within a mutual distance of 110 m., their majestic and immense course." (Malte-Brun, ii. 556.) The waters of the Hoang-ho bring down from its sources large quantities of yellow clay, which not only tinge them with that colour; but supply the banks with alluvial soil. Large deposits of this clay are constantly being made at the mouth of the Hoang-ho; so that the depth of the Yellow Sea has sensibly diminished. The Yangtse-Kiang, is, however, the pride of China. It is the chief artery of the country, and undoubtedly one of the largest rivers of Asia. This stream is also heavily charged with alluvium, for at its exit into the sea- near which it is. from 15 to 20 m. broad continued deposits have formed the I. of Tsung-ming, besides numerous banks. The tributaries received into this river during its course, which is about 2,300 m., are innumerable: and, with the canals, connect it with the whole empire. Both the rivers, especially the Hoang-ho, which has a very rapid course, occasionally overflow their banks, and in spite of many strong artificial mounds, cause the most destructive inundations. The river next in importance is the Eu-ho, or Yun-liang river, which flows N.E. till it joins the Peiho, or Pekin river: the latter rises in the mountains N.W. of Pekin, near which city it becomes navigable for boats; and is, during the rest of its course, the most populous stream of a country where a large proportion of natives live upon the water in junks: their united waters flow into the sea in the most W. angle of the Peche-lee gulph. The Ta-si-Kiang, Choo-Kiang, or Canton river, rising in the prov. of Yun-nan, takes an E. course to the plains of Canton, and having received the Pe-ki-ang, the Ta-ho, and other smaller streams, forms an æstuary known as the Bocca Tigris, by which it is finally discharged into the China Sea, after a course of 600 m. There are a vast number of other rivers, some of which fall into the sea, and others into the great lakes. The Brahmaputra, Irawaddy, Thaluen, Menam, &c., have their sources in the S.W. parts of China. (Journal Royal Geogr. Soc., iii. 305.: Lindsay's l'oyage in the Lord Amherst, passim; Gutzlaff's Voyage, passim; China Opened, i, 29. and 61-168.; Malte-Brun, ii. 555-557.) The principal lake in China is the Tunting-hoo, 220 m. in circ. It receives the waters of many considerable rivers, and furnishes an important affluent to the Yangtse-Kiang, which passes near its N. extremity. After a further course of between 200 and 300 m., this great river receives the surplus waters of the Po-Yang-hoo lake, which also is of great dimensions, and is the recipient of many considerable streams. This lake is surrounded by picturesque and finely-wooded hills. Indeed, its scenery is so much admired, that its shores are the favourite spot where Chinese poets muse and write their versified prose. It is, however, subject to sudden tempests, which render its navigation dangerous. The environs of the Tai-hoo lake, near the E. coast, lat. 31° N., long. 1200 E., are even more picturesque than those of the Po-yang, having gained the name of the Chinese Arcadla." The Hong-tse-hoo, being situated near the junction of the Grand Canal with the Yellow River, is much frequented on account of its advantageous position. All the lakes, in fact, furnish intermedia of communication, and are abundantly stocked with fish. China contains several smaller lakes, but the whole do not occupy any great proportion of her vast surface. (China Opened, i. 31.; Barrow, ii. 387. 391., iii. 12.) of earth and stone. (Barrow, 511.) The sluices, which keep its waters at the necessary level, are all of very simple construction. In the public roads, and where rugged steeps are only accessible by means of laboriously formed passes, Chinese industry is fully apparent. Three mountain paths traverse the Nan-ling; one, N. of Canton, is estimated by Sir G. Staunton to rise 8,000 ft. above the sea; yet vast quantities of goods are conveyed over this pass from Canton to the interior by coolies or porters. The obstacles to communication presented by the Pe-ling and Ta-pa-ling ranges are greatly diminished by an artificial road sometimes conducted over yawning clefts by arches, in other places deeply cut through high mountains, and extending alto. gether for 150 m. In short, wherever intercourse is expedient between any two parts of China, no natural impediments are too gigantic, no labour or expense too great, to overcome them. Coust. The coast of China has yet to be described. If our statement be correct, that the sea-coast extends for 2,500 m., there is only one mile of coast to every 539 m. of territory; but internal navigation is carried on so extensively that this deficiency has no ill effect upon Chinese commerce. Commencing at the N.E., the coast opposite Corea is bold and rocky, but, on approaching the gulf of Pe-che-lee, presents a low and sandy shore, scarcely perceptible from the sea. The bar formed in this bay, at the mouth of the Pei-ho, makes its bed inconveniently narrow, and, when the S. winds blow, the whole adjacent country is overflowed to a great extent. The coast of the Shan-tung peninsula is bold and rocky, so indented as to afford excellent harbours; but, once rounded, the low swampy character of coast is again presented as far as the Tchusan islands. Meantime, the two great rivers have brought down their immense deposits from the interior, which give its name to the Yellow Sea. The mud is so thick as to retard the head way, and affect the steering of ships; and this great gulph will, in process of time, become a vast alluvial district, like Bengal and Egypt. "The present inclination of the bottom is about a foot in a geographical mile, or somewhat less than 1 in 5,000; and it is probable that the bottom of the Yellow Sea, as it rises, will likewise gradually approximate to a horizontal plain." (Hall's Voyages, i. 27.) This sea is nearly surrounded with islands. The coast down to the strait of Formosa continues low, and, except where it faces the Tchusan islands, and in the prov. of Fokien, is but little indented. The strait itself abounds with headlands, and is also so thickly studded with islands which are but imperfectly notified even in the best charts, that navigation is, by Captain Hall's account," exceedingly trying to the nerves." The Quang-tong shore is bold and high, except in the recesses of the numerous bays and harbours. A narrow peninsula is thrust out far into the sea at the W. extre-preference to pleasure. The grandeur of natural scenery mity of Quang-tong, and forms, with the island of Hainan, a narrow channel, which is shoal, full of sand banks and rocks, so that even the native flat-bottomed junks are exposed to great dangers. The rest of the shore is washed by the Tonquin gulph, which is studded with small islands. (Hall's Voyages, 12mo. edit. i. 29— 46.; Gutzlaff's Voyage, passim; Lindsay's Voyage; Journal Geog. Soc. iii. 297-310.) Public Works Aspect of Cities and Towns. - An amount of human labour, probably unmatched by any other nation in the world, except ancient Egypt, has been expended on the public works of China, by which the natural aspect of the country has been materially varied. The first and most stupendous of these is the great wall, built several hundred years before the Christian æra, to protect China from Tartar incursions. It extends along the whole N. frontier, from the gulph of Leatong, in 1200, to the N.W. extremity of the empire, in about 990 E. long., and 40° N. lat., being, including its windings, about 1,250 m. in length: it is carried over the tops of the highest mountains, through the deepest valleys, and continued by bridges over rivers. Its height varies from 15 to 30 ft. It is 15 ft. across at the top; and, at short intervals, square towers are erected, some of them 37 ft. high. The wall is composed of earth faced with masonry, the top or platform being paved with square tiles. It is now in a state of decay, being no longer required, since the union of the Tartar with the Chinese territory, for its original purpose. (Davis, i. 136.; Beil's Travels, ii. 88.) The Great Canal commences at Hang-tchou, near the mouth of the Tching-tang-chiang river, in about 30° 22′ N. lat., and 119° 45′ E. long., and, extending N., unites first with the Yang-tse-Kiang, and then with the Hoangho, terminating at Lin-teing, on the Eu-ho river, in about 37° N. lat., and 116° E. long. The direct distance between the extreme limits of the canal is about 512 m., but, including its bends, it is above 650 m. in length; and as the Eu-ho, which is a navigable river, unites with the Pei-ho, also navigable, an internal water communication is thus established between Hang-tchou and Pekin, across 10° of lat. And by the junction of smaller canals and numerous rivers, the Great Canal not only assists in the irrigation of immense tracts of land, but affords a ready means for conveying its produce to all parts of the empire. But, apart from its utility, the Great Canal does not rank high as a work of art. A vast amount of labour has, however, been expended upon it: for though it mostly passes through a flat country, and winds about to preserve its level, its bed is in parts cut down to a considerable depth, while in other parts it is carried over extensive hollows, lakes, &c., on vast mounds The following summary of the general appearance of the cities and towns of China is supplied by Gutzlaff:-"The districts on the sea-coast are generally the best inhabited and the richest; the tracts along the Yang-tse-Kiang the most fertile. Large and flourishing cities are found only where a ready water communication with other parts of the empire can be carried on. The greatest sameness exists in all the cities. In the larger ones are a few well paved streets, lined with shops; but the greater part of the streets are very narrow, extremely filthy, and planted with mere hovels. The suburbs of many cities are much larger than the cities themselves; and it is by no means extraordinary to see an immense walled space without any houses, where formerly a city stood. Villages and hamlets have a beautiful appearance at a distance; but on entering them one sees nothing but a heap of houses irregularly thrown together, the outside fair to behold, but the inside without furniture or comforts, and more filthy even than a stable. This does not apply to one district only, but it is common to most. Although the fields and gardens are beautifully laid out, there yet appears in them little attention either to elegance or pleasure. The gardens are very few; and a Chinese grandee delights more in artificial landscapes laid out in a small compass, than in an extensive park or a flower-garden. Utility is studied in is in many parts of China as striking as in many parts of the world. Mountains, crags, rivulets, and valleys, both picturesque and romantic, are found in most provinces. Commanding situations are chosen for temples, the haunts of superstition and idolatry. These serve likewise for taverns, stages, public halls, and gambling-houses. The building of houses is regulated by law; none is allowed to exceed a certain dimension. Public halls have little to recommend them; the Chinese were never great architects; they understood the building of dwellinghouses, but not of palaces." (China Opened, i. 57, 58.) Climate.-Connected with this subject there are some singular circumstances. Situated between the 20th and 42nd degrees of N. lat., and the most E. long. of any part of the Old World, the temperature of China is very low for its geographical position. Its climate may also be said to be one of extremes; and while at Pekin, which is nearly 10 farther S. than Naples, the mean temperature is that of Britany, the scorching heats of summer are greater than at Cairo, and the winters as rigorous as at Upsal! But in so extensive a territory there are necessarily many variations. The W. districts are much influenced by the colds diffused by the mountains, while the climate of the maritime provinces is modified by the sea. At Canton, which is under the tropic, the heat during July, August, and September, is excessive, then occur those frightful tornadoes, called typhoons, spreading devastation in their course, which, however, do not extend far beyond Canton. At the breaking up of these hurricanes, the transitions from the heat of day to cold and foggy nights are more violent and sudden than in any other part of the globe. The N. winds set in about November, and bring with them cold as intense as the preceding heats. The mean temperature of Canton is 76° Fahr. The climate of the interior is not however, with few exceptions, so extreme, particularly towards the N. frontier, where the summers are genial; and though the winter be cold, it is dry, and does not check the growth of fruit; but the N. winds bring clouds of white sand, which afflict the natives with ophthalmia. The W. frontier districts of Yun-nan and Sze-chuen are said to be unhealthy, and are selected as places of banishment for Chinese convicts. The central provinces present a striking contrast to those already named. There the climate exhibits a happy medium between the rigour of the N. regions and the enervating heats and sudden colds of the S. The Kiang-se the most favoured in this respect. The fall of rain in China varies considerably in different years. Humboldt states-without naming on what authority-that the average quantity per an. is 70 in.; though it has been known to exceed ૨૧૩ 90. Many violent earthquakes have been felt in China. | given by Amiot in 1743, by Lord Macartney in 1792, Malte-Brun, art. China; China Opened, i. 31. 60. 90. and by the official returns in 1813. 162, 163. 185.; The Fan-qui in China, by C. T. Downing, Esq. i. 191, 192.; Lycll's Geology, ii. 50. &c.) Population.-China has long been very generally believed to be the most densely peopled country, of any considerable extent, in the world. The Jesuit Semedo, writing in 1645, remarks, that, after living in the country 22 years, he was no less surprised on leaving than on his first arrival, at the immense number of persons he met with, not only in the towns and cities, but on the highways," where," says he, "there is at all times as large a crowd as is usually to be met with on some great festival or public occasion." The Jesuit Amiot, founding on official documents, estimated the pop. in 1743 at about 143,000,000, which, adding for some classes that he had omitted, may be carried to about 150,000,000; and in 1792, Lord Macartney was informed, by a mandarin, "a plain, unaffected, honest man," whose statement is said to have been made on the authority of official documents, that the pop. was 333,000,000, and later accounts carry it up to above 360,000,000! ern. and Maritime West- Southern, Kwi-chou Gan hway 6,681,350 61,554 3,402,722 S 18,000,000 10,207,256 12,000,000 15,193,125 25,000.000 23,037,173 19,000,000 23,046,999 14,000,000 27,370,098 13,000,000 18,652,507 9,000,000 5,288,219 24,000,000 28,958,764 92,961 26,766,365 32,000,000 72,011,560 Fo-Kien Yun-nan 39,150 15,623,990 53,480 7,643,035 79,456 6,006,600 78,250 1,143,450 107,969 1,189,825 Sze-chuen Leaotong 21,000,000 26,256,781 15,000,000 14,777,410 21,000,000 19,174,030 10,000,000 7,313,895) 8,000,000 5,551,320 166,800 15,181,710, 27,000,000 21,435,678 235,620 Total 1,297,999 150,265,475 333,000,000 360,279,897 Local Divisions. Though the geography of the world be not much studied in the "Celestial Empire," the more minute details of local topography are no where better understood. The survey of the Jesuits, made by order of the emperor Kang-he, is said to be very correct; and every district of any importance has since found a geographer, who describes it, if not so scientifically as the Catholic missionaries, with the utmost minuteness, so that, with little difficulty, a library of 3.000 vols. might be collected treating exclusively of Chinese geography. Nothing can be more systematic than the manner in which the whole empire is divided. Each prov. is portioned off into provincial districts; while the towns and cities are divided into the 1st class (foo), 2d class (tchoo), and 3d class (heen). Formerly China Proper consisted of 15 provs. ; but in Keen-Lung's time the largest were bisected, and there are now 18. We confess, however, that, with the exception of that of Amiot, these statements appear to us to be altogether incredible, and that, in point of fact, we have no certain information as to the pop. of China. According to the statements in Chinese official works, the pop. of the But the census for 1813 adds an additional sum of empire amounted, in 1393, to 60,545,000; and in 1578 to 1,413,982_mouths for the pop. of Shing-king, Keih-lin, 60,092,000. It is supposed to have continued at or about Turfan, Lobnor, and Formosa; and 188,326 families for this amount till the Tartar conquest in 1644, a year those engaged in the service of the emperor; and supposing before the publication of Semedo's work. But it ap- the latter to consist of 4 mouths each, the total pop., pears from an imperial proclamation quoted in the according to the census of that year, will be 362,447,183. Chinese Repository, issued in 1792, and said to be founded A glance at the above table must satisfy every body on official data, that the pop. had been reduced in 1711 that the account of the pop. furnished to Lord Macart to 28,605,716! (vol.i. p. 356.; Canton, 1833.) This extraordi- ney, in 1792, and the census of 1813, cannot both be acnary diminution is attempted to be explained in the curate. The last shows an excess over the former of 294 work now referred to, by the mortality occasioned by millions in the aggregate; but it would appear that in the long and bloody wars that accompanied the esta the majority of the provinces there has been no increase; blishment of the Manchoo dynasty, by the fact of some but, on the contrary, a diminution, in some instances, of of the provs. in the S. not having been fully subdued nearly a half! It may, however, be confidently affirmed, when this census was taken; and by the circumstance that no such diminution has taken place; and conseof a poll-tax being then imposed, which made it for the quently that the statement of Lord Macartney's "honest interest of individuals to escape being enrolled in the informant is completely erroneous; or, which is most procensus. Now, admitting the force of some of these state-bable, that both it and the census are in this predicament. ments, though we believe them to be greatly overstated, and allowing that but for the wars occasioned by the Tartar conquest, and the imperfectly subdued state of parts of the country, a correct census taken in 1711 would have given a pop. of 60 or 70 millions; still, we ask, can it be credited that the pop. should have increased from even that amount, in 1711, to above 300,000,000 in 1792? Had China been a new country, or had the Tartars, by whom she was overrun in the 17th century, been distinguished by their superior intelligence and industry, an increase of this sort might have been possible. But the reverse of all this is the fact. China has been settled and civilised for many centuries; the great works undertaken and completed by her inhabit. at a very remote period, show that she had then been pretty thickly peopled; and it is admitted, on all hands, that in China the arts have been for ages in a nearly stationary state. The Tartars imparted to her little that was new. They were, in truth, mere roving herdsmen; and though they might have given the Chinese some instruction in predatory warfare, they could communicate to them no useful art, science, or invention. Under these circumstances, we contend either that the former official accounts of the pop. must have been grossly underrated, or that the later ones must be grossly exaggerated. But supposing that the pop. really amounted to 150,000,000 about 1750, is it credible that it should have exceeded 330,000,000 in 1792, and 362,447,000 in 1812? It would require the best possible evidence to make any reasonable person believe what is so directly at variance with all the best established principles; and no such evidence has been, or, we believe, can be, given with respect to the alleged increase of pop. in China. Whether the empire could support the pop. that has been ascribed to it, is a question on which it is needless now to enter. We believe, however, with M. De Guignes, that the fertility of the country has been greatly overrated; but whether that be so or not, we submit that the rate of increase exhibited by the censuses is such as could have been realised only in an unoccupied and very fertile country, colonised by a people far advanced in the arts; and that it is all but absurd to suppose that it should be realised in an old settled country, with stationary arts like China. (For a further discussion of this subject, see the excellent work of De Guignes, Voyages à Peking, &c. iii. 55-86.) We subjoin an account of the area of the different provs. as given by Lord Macartney, and their pop. as Semedo himself gives some statements whence it is inferred that the pop., about 1640, amounted to about 290,000,000! But this is contradicted by all the official returns, and is, obviously, unworthy of notice. Northern Provinces. —1. Pe-che-le (the independent) is subdivided into 16 districts, the most W. of which are very flat; the central ones somewhat hilly; while those on the sea-coast along the Pe-che-lee gulph, are low and marshy. Pekin, the metropolis of Northern China and residence of the court, is situated in this prov., about 60 m. from the great wall, and 100 m. from the sea. The Pei-ho flows through Pe-che-lee, disemboguing at the small sea port of Takoo. The chief ports are Tong-choo and Tein-sing. It is a curious fact, and one which does not square well with the popular notions of absenteeism, that despite the residence of the court, the bulk of the population are probably more depressed in this than in any other prov. (Barrow, 495.) 2. Shan-se, or Chan-se (west of the mountains) is divided from Mongolia by the great wall, a branch of which (the inner great wall) separates its E. limit from Pe-che-lee. It is said to have been the most early occupied part of China. Its mountainous portions are not, however, habitable, and many other localities afford but a scanty subsistence. Hence it has no large or remarkable cities. 3. Shen-se, or Chen-se (west of the pass) is also separated from the Mongolian borders by the great wall, which in this place is kept in good repair. The mountains in this prov., which are more rugged than high, contain gold mines, but these are not allowed to be worked, lest the attention of the people should be withdrawn from agriculture. The valleys through which the Hei-ho and the Han-Kiang run are fertile in millet, wheat, and pulse, but are too dry to produce much rice. Swarms of locusts frequently appear in Shen-se, destroying the harvest, and converting smiling valleys into wastes. The chief town is Se-gan-foo, one of the largest in the empire. and Shen-se, formerly united, made one large prov.. 4. Kan-suh (voluntary awe) extending over a space of 154,008 sq. m. Kan-suh CHINA. 'consists principally of a narrow neck of land thrust out upon the edge of the great Gobi desert; hence the soil is cold and barren. Kan-suh forms the N. W. limit of China, the great wall ending at Shwang-lan. Central Provinces.-5. Ho-nan (south of the river) is one of the most fertile provinces of the great plain, and is called the garden of China. Shen-se, Pe-che-le, and a part of Shan-tung join its N. boundary, while branches of the Pe-ling enclose it to the W. The Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, runs nearly parallel with the N. boundary, and intersects the finest parts of the prov. 6. Kiang-se (west of the river) has its boundaries well defined by the Nan-ling range and its branches, which surround it on three sides, the W., S., and E. Its N. part contains the great Poo-Yang lake, and its contiguous marshes, said by Mr. Barrow to be the sink of China. It has, however, many well cultivated valleys, in which rice, cotton, indigo, and sugar, are produced. It has also extensive manufactures, amongst which must not be forgotten the China-ware, so highly esteemed all over the world, till European imitators exceeded the original manufacture in beauty and cheapness. Still, however, no fewer than a million persons are said to be exclusively employed in this manufacture, which is chiefly carried on at the capital King-le-chin. Here 500 furnaces are constantly burning. 7. Hoo-pih (north of the river), and, 8. Hoo-nan (south of the river), form the ancient prov. of Hoo-Kwang, The divided into two parts by the Yang-tse-Kiang. former is divided into 11 and the latter into 13 districts; the whole covering an area of 144,770 sq. m. Both provs. are extremely fertile, and the capital of Hoo-pih yields to few cities of the empire in extent and prosperity. The tea grown in its neighbourhood is of superior quality, and the bamboo-paper manufactured within its walls is extensively exported. This city is called Woo-chang-foo. Hoo-nan bears a great resemblance to the Ho-nan prov., but is richer in minerals. A very active trade is carried on, on both banks of the Yang-tse-Kiang. Hoo-pih and Hoo-nan are both within the great plain. 9. Kwi-chow has been designated the Switzerland of China, being traversed by the highest portion of the Nan-ling range. To the S. it is peopled by wild and intractable highlanders, (Meaou-tze), who, though in the centre of the empire, preserve their independence, and frequently make predatory descents on the adjoining provinces. Kwi-chow has no large towns, but several fortresses. Maritime and Southern Provinces.-10. Shan-tung (east of the mountains) is partly in the great plain and partly consists of a promontory jutting into the Yellow Sea; S. of Pe-che-le, and N.E. of Ho-pan. Its W. part is traversed by the Great Canal, but the country is poor, There are, and the climate, though bracing, bleak. however, some valuable coal mines, which supply the whole empire with that article. The coast is bold, and affords good shelter. The principal port is Tong-cheoufoo. 11 & 12. The Kiang-soo (river Soo) and Gan-hway (fixed excellence) prov. were once united under the name of Kiang-nang. The two great rivers, the Hoangho and Yang-tse- Kiang, cross both districts, and fall into the sea 20 apart, forming the Chinese delta. Ganhway has 13 districts, and the Kiang-soo 11; their "If we consider,' united extent being 92,961 sq. m. remarks Gutzlaff, their agricultural resources, their great manufactures, their various productions, their excellent situation on the banks of the two largest rivers in China, their many canals, and amongst them the Great Canal, and tributary rivers, they are doubtless the best territory of China." Enjoying these blessings, chiefly conferred by their two great rivers, these provinces are also the most liable to the evils they produce, namely, frequent and destructive inundations. The staple products are grain, cotton, green teas, and silk. Rice suits admirably with the black marshy loam of which most of the soil consists. Nanking (capital of the S.) is situated on the S. bank of the Yang-tse-Kiang, but at the distance of a league from the stream (Nankin). The scene The Kiang-soo prov. only faces the ocean. which appeared at the junction of the Yang-tse-Kiang and Great Canal, is thus described by Barrow: "The multitude of ships of war, of burden, and of pleasure; some gliding down the stream, others sailing against it; some moving by oars, and others lying at anchor; the banks on either side covered with towns and houses as far as the eye could reach; presented a prospect more varied and cheerful than any that had hitherto occurred. Nor was the canal on the opposite side less lively. For two whole days we were continually passing among fleets of ships of different construction and dimensions. Cities, towns, and villages were continued along the banks without intermission. The face of the country was beautifully diversified with hill and dale, and every part in a high state of cultivation." (516.) 13. The Che-Kiang (river Che), or Tche-Kiang, is the smallest Chinese prov. It occupies The Yun-ling chain the S.E. corner of the great plain. ends here in innumerable low hills, the most barren of In fact the whole which produce abundance of tea. 599 At district is most assiduously laid under contribution by Natural Productions of China.-The climate of China, The ornithology of China presents, in the first place, the eagle, which frequents the mountainous districts; the haetsin, a kind of falcon, abounding in the province of Che-keang, is considered imperial property, while the magpie, which is so numerous as to be the farmer's worst nuisance, is considered sacred by the. reigning family. Crows and sparrows are also abundant in China. Among others of their manifold stratagems for catching fish, the Chinese have trained the fishing corQ94 morant; but that the bird may not help itself too bountifully, the owner puts an iron ring round its neck, which obliges it to deliver up a portion of its prey. Curlews and quails are found in great quantities in the N.: the latter are esteemed chiefly for their fighting qualities, as cocks used to be in England; and, when tamed, good fighting quails sell at enormous prices. Larks are numerous, and sing admirably. But the greatest boast of Chinese ornithology is its splendid varieties of pheasants. One, the medallion pheasant, takes its name from a membrane of brilliantly coloured feathers, which are displayed or contracted at the will of the bird. The gold and silver pheasants have also a most brilliant appearance, and are so plentiful as, in some districts, to furnish the tables of the poor with an excellent dish. Pigeons of different sorts are not rare, but the natives seldom domesticate them. Aquatic birds are naturally invited to a country which has so many lakes and rivers. The most celebrated of these is the mandarin duck, a species of teal, so celebrated for the strong mutual affection between the male and female that it is used by the Chinese as an emblem of conjugal fidelity: their plumage is beautiful. The snow-white rice-bird of Siam is of great use in China in extirpating vermin from the marshy rice-fields; which it is enabled to accomplish by means of its long legs and long beak. discovered two varieties, black tea and green tea, native writers enumerate as many hundreds; an óbvious exaggeration. Though this plant will grow in the most sterile ground, the quality of the leaves depends upon the soil which nourishes them, and the age of the tree. The best are taken from three-year-old shrubs. There are three in-gatherings of the leaves; the first in early spring, the second at the commencement, and the third at the end of the summer. They are carefully manipulated, dried in various ways, and then packed. The coarsest leaves are beaten into cakes and exported, principally into Tartary, under the name of kaiel-cha, or brick tea. But the finer descriptions of tea require a vast deal of labour in their preparation; and could only be produced in a country where the inhabitants are universally industrious, and wages low. That giant of the grass tribe, the bamboo, is most extensively used; besides being an important instrument for enforcing the laws, the Chinese build cottages and fashior. all sorts of furniture with it. The tender shoots make an excellent food, and supply the material for a coarse sort of of paper. Tobacco, the cotton plant, and sugar-canes, are also profitably cultivated. The growth of garden flowers is not much encouraged, every available inch of ground being used for the production of edible plants. Even the more opulent natives are content with a few flower-pots, with some pretty flower for the sake of ornament. The water-lily not only produces a beautiful flower, but its fruit provides an excellent meal, not unlike gruel, in much request among the Chinese. They have almost unlimited varieties of the camellia. A plant, the name of which has not yet reached this country, furnishes that delicate material for drawing upon, and making into artificial flowers, falsely called rice-paper. From the fishes peculiar to China, we derive the gold and silver fish, which are kept there, as in Europe, for ornament in glass globes. The edible fish peculiar to China are, first, one of a yellowish colour, caught in the Yang-tse-Kiang, which, while fresh, is insipid; but is considered a great delicacy after having been kept for a time in ice. The shang-tung, sea-eel, and a sort of rock cod, called tsang-yu, are also much esteemed, and so are sturgeon, mullet, carp, perch, sea-bream, &c. The great pop. of China, and the fondness of the people Crab fish of various kinds are plentiful. On parts of the for vegetables, cause a great number of table-plants to be rocky coast, oysters are successfully preserved and fat-reared. Turnips, carrots, sweet potatoes, and pot-herbs tened in oyster-beds. of every kind, are produced in abundance. A white cabbage, called pih-tsae, and not unlike the Roman lettuce, constitutes the principal food of every class, and is really delicious. Of grain, the plenitude of water in China causes rice to be so successfully cultivated, that it is brought to greater perfection there than in any other part of the globe. Indeed, there is scarcely any sort of grain but may be found in some part of the country or other. No medical root is in such high favour as the gin-seng, which is administered as a sort of universal panacea, and is a good tonic. It was formerly found only in Shan-tung, Leao-tung, and Tartary; and brought a very high price. But it has been discovered in different parts of America; and is now extensively imported into Canton by the American traders. The ti-wang, a plant very similar to liquorice, is also much used as a restorative. The other roots are Radix China (a sort of truffle), galangal, rhubarb, ginger (often exported as a sweetmeat), and poppy, whose juice is made a substitute for opium, and is extensively cultivated in spite of the strictest government regulations to the contrary. Though the larger species of reptiles are unknown in China, the smaller lizard tribes are numerous in the hot months; several fresh-water tortoises have been discovered, and also two new species of frogs. Venomous serpents are but little known. The insect tribes of China furnish its greatest plague and its greatest blessing. The plague of locust-swarms is terribly inflicted upon the N. and W. prov. Nothing can exceed their voracity; and it is not uncommon for them to occasion so much destruction, as to reduce thousands of human beings to starvation; while another insect, the silkworm, furnishes employment and riches to an immense part of the pop. In rearing these profitable worms, the Chinese excel all other nations. Scorpions and centipedes are plentiful. A spider, peculiar to China, which inhabits trees, devours small birds, after entangling them in its enormous web. Butterflies of gigantic size, and brilliant colours, abound E. of Canton. Multitudes of white ants are very destructive in the S.; and the musquito is found in most parts of the country during the summer months. There is a singular sort of bee, called the white-wax insect, which furnishes the whole nation with that article, which it deposits upon a particular sort of tree, furnished by the natives with nests to attract the insects. The vegetable kingdom of China is remarkable for not containing any very large trees, and timber is consequently scarce. The oak is seldom seen, fir trees chiefly supplying its place, every ridge of mountain where it is likely to grow being planted with the fir. Palms, laurel, cassia, and caper trees are often met with, especially in the S. provinces, and the cultivator grows together the banana, guava, orange, papaw, cocoa, litchi, peach, apricot, vine, pomegranate, and chestnut. There is also a singular production called the tallow-tree, which resembles the birch, but the bark is white, and the branches slender: the fruit, growing in bunches, is enclosed in a brown capsule, which encloses three kernels, all coated with tallow, themselves containing an oil much used for the lamp, while the tallow is converted into candles. There is also the tse, or varnish tree, resembling the ash, which exudes a valuable essential oil, but produces a cutaneous disease if dropped upon the skin. It is the white blossoms of the le-pih which attract the wax-fly. The camphor-laurel is extremely productive of that drug in China. The kwan-lan contains a pith which, when ground to powder, answers ali the purposes of flour. A species of sycamore, the koo-shoo, supplies paper to the Chinese from the rind; thin, riband-like strips are peeled and made into paper. Mulberry trees, as food for silk-worms, have much pains bestowed on their culture. We come now to the shrub which has brought China into nearer contact with foreigners than her sages ever desired, or her government seem willing to render closer. The tea-plant, called by the natives cha, rises from four to five feet in height, and bears a strong resemblance to the myrtle, but the flower is not unlike small white hedge roses. Although European botanists have only But scanty information is to be obtained of the mineral kingdom of China; but the portion of the mountain districts that has been explored is found to possess great mineral riches. The gold mines are worked exclusively by government, but their situation is kept a secret, though that metal is supposed to be derived from the Kwei-choo and Yun-nan mountains. Gold-dust is found in the Yang-tse-Kiang during its course through Sze-chuen. Iron is produced throughout the empire. Several sorts of copper are found in abundance, the most famous of which is the pe-hing, or white copper, dug up in Yun-nan. Mercury is also very common, as are arsenic, cobalt, and orpiment. There are coal mines in various parts of China. The beautiful lapis lazuli is met with in the W. provinces. Salt, produced from the earth, and by the evaporation of sea-water, is an article of great traffic: it is collected in immense mounds, chiefly on the banks of the Pei-ho. China also furnishes the crystal, ruby, amethyst, sapphire, topaz; but diamonds are little valued. There are stones resembling basalt, which, when struck, give out a sound. Marble, porphyry, and jasper, are produced from the quarries of S. China, beside excellent granite and quartz. (Dr. Abel's Narrative of a Journey into the Interior of China, passim; Downing's FanQui in China, ii. 140-152.; China Opened, i. 33—54. ; Malte-Brun, art. China, &c. &c.) Productive Industry and Trade.- The Chinese are famous for their industry. Of the immense territory they inhabit, there is scarcely a rood of arable ground that is not assiduously cultivated; and such importance do they attach to agriculture, that once a year the sovereign of the Celestial Empire-so seldom seen in public exhibits himself holding a plough. But it is the misfortune of the Chinese that their patient enduring industry is allowed to usurp the place of ingenuity and science. Their farming instruments are of the most primitive kind, their ploughs being inferior to the very worst of ours. Owing to the smallness of the farms, there is no |