The circars are extremely productive of grain, and have long been the granary of Madras during the N.E. monsoon, though at present the distr. of Masulipatam annually imports large quantities of rice from Calcutta and Aracan for home consumption. Large crops of paddy and dry grains, cotton, and tobacco of excellent quality, the sugar-cane, and esculent vegetables are produced in the S.; the same articles, with ginger, yams, turmeric, chilies, &c., in the central parts; a great deal of sugar in the delta of the Godavery; and wheat, maize, the sugar-cane, and an abundance of rice and other grains in the N.

Agriculture is least advanced in Vizagapatam, owing chiefly to an oppressive revenue assessment: many of its hills are wild, and destitute of vegetation. In Masulipatam distr. there are extensive tracts of grass. The total number of black cattle in the circars is about 1,380,000, of sheep 509,000. The Ganjam distr. is interspersed with numerous bamboo jungles. The forests of Rajamundry abound with teak, which tree is found no where else on the E. side of Hindostan. The chief manufactures are chintzes, carpets, and cotton stuffs, in the central; and indigo, punjum cloths, muslins and silks, in the N. distr.: the piece goods of the circars, which were formerly their staple, are now rather objects of curiosity than made in any considerable quantity. Rum was formerly distilled in the N.; the sugar of Ganjam is in much request, and exported in large quantities: the other exports are wax, salt, pepper, horns, ivory, indigo, tobacco, and other agricultural produce. The external trade is chiefly with Madras, Calcutta, Hyderabad, and the central Deccan. The exports to Europe are chiefly fine cotton goods: all the raw silk used is imported. The natives are mostly Hindoos; Mohammedans are few. The Orissa and Telinga races have become much intermixed, though they still retain distinct dialects, and have distinct traits and customs. The villages consist of mud huts and houses; but the peasantry are not on the whole incommodiously lodged. The roads are amongst the worst in India, and unfit for wheeled carriages; there are but few tanks, bridges, or ferry-boats. The lands appear for a long period past to have belonged either to the government or to zemindars; for no instance has occurred since the British have come into possession of the prov. of any ryot claiming those cultivated by him. The chief towns of the circars are, - Chicacole, Ellore, Coringa, &c., besides those which bear the names of the several districts. Religious temples are not numerous; but in Ganjam, where Juggernaut is the favourite object of worship, their architecture is peculiar; they consist of groups of low buildings, each with a graduated pyramidical roof, terminating in an ornamented conical cupola. In 1571, the rajah of Hyderabad conquered this prov., which, together with Hyderabad, fell under the dom. of Aurungzebe, in 1687: it however became again independent of the Mogul empire in 1724. The English obtained the four most N. circars in 1765; the French had become possessed of Guntoor in 1752; but it also came into our possession in 1788. (Hamilton's E. I. Gaz.; Madras Almanack.)

CIRCASSIA, more properly TCHERKESSIA or TCHERKESKAIA, the largest and most important country in the Caucasus, of which mountain-range it occupies nearly the whole N. slope; extending from 42° 30′ to 45° 40′ N.lat., and from 37° to 45° 48′ E. long. At its N.W. corner it reaches the Black Sea, but, with this exception, it is bounded on the S. and W. by the main ridge of the mountains which divide it from Georgia, Mingrelia, Imeritia, and Great Abchasia. The N. limit is formed by the rivers Kuban and Terek, which separate it from the

The

Political Divisions.-The Circassians are divided into a great number of tribes, who lead a partially wandering life, so that no very precise arrangement can be made with regard to the districts of their country. The E. portion, or that enclosed by the Terek, is divided by Russian geographers into two provinces - Great Kabardah, to the S.W., and Little Kabardaḥ, to the N.E. These divisions are not, however, recognised by the Circassians, who know but of one Kabardah, and that in the S.W. portion, called by the Russians Great. (Klaproth, 354.) Between the sources of the Kuban and Terek, and along the courses of those rivers, as far as they run N., the land is wholly occupied by a tribe called the Abbasines or Absne; and forms the Little Abasa of Pallas, the Altikesek Abchasia of Guldenstadt. Great Abasa of Pallas, Basiana of Guldenstadt, occupies likewise a very considerable part of the Kubanian Circassia; among the rest, the Nottakhaitzi district, mentioned by Spencer. It appears, indeed, that the Absne are the lawful proprietors of all Kubanian Circassia, and that the Circassians have only the right of conquest to the W. portion of their country; that right is, however, very fully established, not only on the N. slopes of the mountains, but even to a very great degree on the W. side, along the shores of the Black Sea (the Great Abchasia of Guldenstadt). Spencer makes but little distinction between the Absne and Circassians, and frequently speaks of them as one people; this must, however, be an error, since the former display a very peculiar physical conformation, and their language, with the exception of a few Circassian words, is totally unlike that of their conquerors, and of every other known people, European or Asiatic. The Circassian princes are cruel and oppressive tyrants to their Abassian subjects, so much so, that the latter have in many instances sought the protection of the Russian government; but it does not appear that they are in any moral attribute superior to their taskmasters, since in every age they have been infamous for their robberies by land, their piracies by sea, and their reckless cruelties every where. (Guldenstadt, í. 460. 463. 466. 469. ; Pallas, i. 383-391.; Klaproth, pp. 247-263. 23. 311. Spencer's Circassia, ii. 412. &c.; W. Caucasus, i. 20. 200. 212. 247. &c.)

Physical Features. These have been generally described in the article CAUCASUS (which see), and what is peculiar to Circassia is only the consequence of that country's occupying the N. slope of the mountains. With the exception of the lowlands on the banks of the Kuban and Terek, the whole territory is broken into precipitous mountains, small table-lands, and valleys of the most picturesque and romantic description Its hydrography belongs to two systems, the waters of Kabardah being all conveyed by the Terek to the Caspian, and those of W. Circassia by the Kuban to the Black Sea. The former river rises near the Kazibeck, and, forcing its way through the pass of Dariel (an. Caucasian Gate), receives, directly or indirectly, 35 streams before it quits the Circassian country. Of these, the Malk, which joins it at its E. bend, is scarcely inferior in size to the principal river. It rises near the E. bases of the Elbours (Osha Makhua), and is itself the recipient of a considerable number of tributaries. The Kuban rises on the N. base of the Elbours, not far from the sources of the Malk, and receives the water of more than 50 rivers, 30 of which fall directly into its bed. It has every reason to be considered, exclusively, a Circassian river; for though no part of its N. bank be inhabited by Circassians, it does not receive a single drop of water, in its whole course, that does not rise within their territory. A similar remark will apply, in a modified sense, to the Terek, which, like the Kuban, does not receive a single stream from the N., and only one of consequence after entering the Tartar country E. of Little Kabardah. The country between the sources of the Malk and Kuban is watered by various streams; and when it is recollected that, in addition to these, innumerable torrents pour from the upper ranges of the mountains, it will be evident that no land can be better irrigated. The water is in general clear and good, but occasionally impregnated with mineral and other extraneous matters. The tributary streams become flooded in winter, and extremely shallow during the heats of summer; the currents of all are extremely rapid, as are those also of the Terck and Kuban, except where the

pendent of other countries for this important element of warfare; their mode of manufacture is, however, very primitive. It has already been stated that the women are the great manufacturers of clothes, which may be said to be the only manufacture which these people possess. They formerly traded with Persia and Turkey for their chain and other armour, and with Tartar tribes northward for salt; the equivalents on their parts being their children and cattle. The Russians have annihilated both trades; and this, as already stated, is one great cause of the hatred entertained against them by the Circassians. (Klaproth, p. 323.; Pallas, i. 400. &c.; Spencer, ii. 246. &c.)

Name, History. The word Tcherkessia is Tartar, and literally means cut the road; that is, highwayman or robber, one who makes communication unsafe. The general name for these people, in the Caucasus, is Kasack, whence it has been inferred that they are of the same race with the Cossacks of the Don and the Wolga; but etymology has indeed run mad upon this point; for this term, like the former, has a general, not a national, signification, and means a man who leads a wandering and martial life. The Circassians themselves recognise neither term; they style themselves Adige, which has been derived by some authorities from the Turco-Tartar adah (island), whence it has been inferred that these people came originally from the Crimea. This may be the case, but it acquires no strength from the etymological proof, since the Circassians have no word for island (how should they, being necessarily ignorant of the thing?) and their language, as before observed, has no connection with either Turkish or Tartar. From a resemblance in sound between the Tartar name (Tchetkess), they have been pretty generally supposed to be identical with the Zyges (Zuyo) of Strabo (ii. 129., xi. 492.). Stephen of Byzantium (art. Zvyoi), and Procopius (De Bel. Got. iv. 4.) This, again, is not improbable, but the premises are far too weak and uncertain to found a conclusion upon. The Kabardines have a tradition that they are Arab (Pallas, i. 392.); but in the W. mountains they say that before their ancestors arrived here, the land was inhabited by men so small, that they rode hares instead of horses (Spencer's Circass. ii.); and, as to the time when this settlement took place, they are profoundly ignorant. Among all this confusion, naturally to be expected in speaking of a barbarous and but little known people, all that can be inferred with certainty is, that the Circassians have inhabited their mountains for many centuries, and that they have always been the same hardy, reckless, daring robber warriors, that we find them at this hour. Christianity is supposed to have found its way among them in the very early part of the Christian æra; but, in the palmy days of Turkish power, they nominally embraced Mohammedanism, preserving, however, many Christian ceremonies, and acknowledged a kind of doubtful dependence on the Porte. Their first connection with Russia took place in 1555, when the princes of the Besch Tag submitted to the Czar Iwan Vassilievitch. From that time the Russian power has been constantly increasing in the Caucasus; and by the treaty of Adria. uople (1830), Turkey made over to it the whole Circassian country. Denying the right to be thus disposed of, and knowing that, under the vigorous government of Russia, their robberies would be repressed, as well as their traffic in slaves, they flew to arms, and, for the last nine years have maintained a brave but unequal struggle. Sympathy is naturally excited by the spectacle of a handful of mountaineers contending against one of the most powerful empires in the world; but no one who calmly considers the subject in its different bearings can doubt that their subjugation by a civilised government will be a material service to the cause of humanity, and, eventually, even to themselves.

The population of Circassia is estimated at between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000. (Klaproth, pp. 173-223. 310314.; Pallas, i. 390-395. 403. 407. &c.: Spencer's Circass. and W. Cauc. pass.)

CIRENCESTER (usually called Ciceter), a parl. bor. and par. of England, co. Gloucester, hund. Crowthorne, on the Churn, 82 m. W. by N. London. Area of par., 5,900 acres. Pop., 1821, 4,987; 1831, 5,420; but the limits of the parl. bor. are not identical with those of the par., and it had, in 1831, a pop. of 5,102. The town is on the line of road from Oxford to Bath, and consists of 4 principal, and several smaller streets, paved and lighted: houses mostly of stone, and well built; many of the more respectable are detached, and have shrubberies round them. "It is not a place of any trade; but it is a very respectable country town in good condition, rather increasing in buildings, and has the appearance of being inhabited by persons in easy circumstances.' (Boundary Report.) Portions of its ancient wells (2 m. in circuit) are still traceable, showing that the modern town occupies only a portion of the ancient site, a large part of the enclosed area, on the S. E., being occupied by gardens and meadows. The church is in the decorated style of the 15th century, with a lofty tower, and

several lateral chapels and ancient monuments of great interest: both within and without, it is elaborately or namented, and is one of the finest par. churches in England. There are 4 dissenting chapels; a free grammar-school, founded in the reign of Hen. VII., which had Dr. Jenner for a pupil; blue-coat and yellow-coat schools with small endowments, clothing and educating about 40 children; 3 ancient hospitals, or alms houses, supporting in all 13 aged persons; and several other charitable institutions. Markets, Monday and Friday: fairs, Easter Thursday, July 18., Nov. 8.; there are also statute fairs on the Mondays before and after Oct. 10. There is here a large woollen-cloth and a carpet manufactory; curriers' knives, of a superior quality, are also made in the town, and there are two breweries; a branch of the Thames and Severn Canal extends to it, and races are annually held in its vicinity. It is not incorporated, and is governed by 2 high constables and 14 wardsmen, chosen annually at the court leet and baron of the manor. Petty sessions for the 7 hundreds of Cirencester (comprising nearly one fourth part of the co.) are held here; and a court of requests for debts under 40s. for the same district. It is a polling place for the E. div. of the co.; and has itself returned 2 mem. to the H. of C. from the 13th of Eliz., the franchise previously to the Reform Act having been vested in the inhab. householders being parishioners. Registered electors, in 1837-38, 586.

Cirencester was the Corinium of the Romans; and was a place of considerable importance from its being situated at the intersection of three military roads. Numerous Roman remains have been discovered; and near it is an amphitheatre (now called the Bull-ring), being an ellipse of 63 by 43 yards, enclosed by a mound 20 ft. high, on the inner slope of which were turf seats, which are still partially traceable. In the last civil war hostilities are supposed to have commenced in this town by an attack on Lord Chandos; it was several times taken and retaken during its progress. A magnificent abbey of Black Canons was founded here by Henry I., whose abbot was mitred, and had a seat in parl. Its revenue at the general dissolution was 1,0517.; some slight remains of it still exist. Oakley Park, the seat of Earl Bathurst, is in the immediate vicinity. The ancient annalist, Richard of Cirencester, was a native of the town. (Rudder's Hist. of Cirencester; Atkyn's Hist. Gloucestershire; Parl. Papers and Reports.)

CIUDAD DE LAS CASAS (formerly Ciudad Real), an inl. city of Mexico, cap. of the state of Chiapas, in a fertile plain near the border of Guatimala, 450 m. S.E. Mexico. Pop. about 4,000, one eighth of whom are Indians. It has a cathedral, another church, several chapels, four convents, a nunnery, and a R. Cath. ecclesiastical college. It was founded in 1528, and made a city by the emperor Charles V., in 1536. It was the see of the celebrated bishop Las Casas, the protector of the Indians, to whose memory a monument is here erected.

CIUDAD REAL, a city of Spain, prov. La Mancha, of which it is the cap., in a plain about 5 m. S. and E. from the Guadiana, 102 m. S. Madrid, 162 m. N. E. Seville. Pop. 10,758. It was built after the expulsion of the Moors from La Mancha, to serve as a check upon those who still maintained themselves in the Sierra Morena. Extensive remains of its ancient walls and towers still exist. Streets long and straight, but narrow. The grand square is surrounded by two rows of boxes for viewing the bullfights and public festivals. It has 5 churches, 8 convents, 3 hospitals, barracks for troops, a magnificent workhouse, including a school for the instruction of peer children in useful occupations, founded by Cardinal Lorenzana, Archbishop of Toledo, and seminaries for the study of classical learning. The woollen manufactures and tanneries, for which this city was formerly distinguished, are now much decayed. It was the head-quarters of the famous Santa Hermandad, or Holy Brotherhood, an order founded in 1249, for the extirpation of highway robbers. (Miñano, iii. 190.; Bourgoing, &c.)

CIUDAD RODRIGO, a city of Spain, prov. Salamanca, on an eminence on the right bank of the Aqueda, which is here crossed by a bridge of 7 arches, 55 m. S. W. Salamanca, 146 m. W. Madrid, and 16 m. from the frontiers of Portugal. Pop. 6,097. It has a castle, and is strongly fortified. It is tolerably well built, and has some good public buildings, including a cathedral, founded in 1170, with numerous churches and convents, an episcopal seminary, and an hospital. In the great square are 3 Roman columns, with inscriptions. The town has two suburbs, and its environs are fertile. Ciudad Rodrigo was taken by the French, under Marshal Massena, in 1810. The Duke of (then Lord) Wellington, having come upon it by surprise, with the allied English and Portuguese forces, on Jan. 8. 1812, after a vigorous siege, took it by assault on the 20th of the same month. A large battering train, and immense quantities of ammunition, were found in the town. The allies lost about 1,200 men, and 90 officers, in the siege and assault. This important achievement procured for the successful

general the title of Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo from the Spanish gov., and of Marquis of Torres Vedras from the Portuguese. (Napier's Penin. War, iv. 387.; Miñano, &c.) CIUDADELA, a city of the island of Minorca, of which it was formerly the cap., at the head of a deep and narrow bay on the W. coast of the island; lat. 39° 59′ N., long. 3° 54′ E. Pop. 7,800. It has walls, partly of Moorish construction and partly modern, with stone bastions. In the centre of the town is a large fine Gothic church. The streets are narrow, but it has a considerable number of good houses, inhabited by many of the nobles of the adjacent country. It was formerly a much richer and more important place than at present: it is now dependent on Mahon for all its imports of foreign articles. (Miñano.)

CIVITÀ VECCHIA (an. Centum Celle), a fortified sea-port town of the Papal States, cap. deleg. of same name, on the Mediterranean, 36 m. W.N.W. Rome, of which it is the port; lat. 42° 4′ 38′′ N., long. 11° 44′52′′ E. Pop, about 7,000, exclusive of prisoners, that is, of felons employed in the public works, a bagne being established here. Though the streets are narrow, the town is tolerably well-built and laid out; it contains several convents, a lazaretto, a theatre, an arsenal, building-docks, warehouses, &c., and engrosses almost the whole of the import and export trade of the W. side of the Papal dominions. Its harbour, which was constructed by the emperor Trajan, is formed of three large moles,-two projecting from the mainland, and inclined the one a little to the N., and the other to the S.; and a third constructed opposite to the gap between the others, and serving to protect the shipping from the heavy sea that would otherwise be thrown in during W. gales. The latter mole clearly appears from a passage in Pliny's letters (lib. 6. epist. 31.) to have been formed in a precisely similar manner to the breakwater at Plymouth, by sinking immense blocks of stone, which became fixed and consolidated by their own weight, till the structure was raised above the waves. Its extremities are about 90 fathoms distant from those of the lateral moles, and at its S. end there is a lighthouse, with a lantern elevated 74 ft. above the level of the sea. The S. entrance to the harbour is the deepest, having from 8 to 4 fathoms water. Ships may anchor within the port, in from 16 to 18 ft. water, or between it and the outer mole, where the depth is greater. Civita Vecchia is a free port, that is, a port into which produce may be imported, and either made use of or re-exported free of duty; but quarantine regulations are very strictly enforced. Its imports consist chiefly of cotton, woollen, silk, and linen stuffs; coffee, sugar, cocoa, and other colonial products; salt and salted fish, wines, jewellery, glass, earthenware, &c. to the total value of about 650,000. or 700,000l. annually; the exports are principally staves and timber, corn, wood, cheese, potash, pumice stone, alum, &c., probably to an amount not much less. Marseilles and Genoa have the largest share of the foreign trade; and next to them, England. Fully 3-4ths of the ships entering the Papal ports arrive at that of Civita Vecchia.

This city was originally called Trajanus Portus, and it is to be regretted that it did not continue to bear the name of its illustrious founder. (Rampoldi; Com. Dict.) CLACKMANNAN, a co. of Scotland, and the smallest in that kingdom, on the N. side of the Forth, being, except for a short distance on the E., where it adjoins Fife, every where surrounded by the cos. of Perth and Stirling. Area, 39,720 acres. It is traversed by the Devon, an affluent of the Forth. The range of the Ochill hills crosses and mostly occupies the part of the co. to the N. of the Devon; but the other and far largest portion consists, for the most part, of clay and carse land, and is remarkably fertile and well cultivated, producing excellent crops of wheat and beans. Estates middle-sized; farms large; farm buildings excellent; average rent of land, in 1810, 17. Os. 10d. an acre. There are valuable mines of coal, large quantities of which are shipped at Alloa; ironstone is also abundant. There are some large distilleries and breweries; but little other manufacture is carried on. Alloa is the largest, but Clackmannan is the co. town. Clackmannan is divided into 5 parishes, and had, in 1831, 2,391 inhab. houses, 3,352 families, and 14.729 inhab., of whom 7,095 were males, and 7,634 females. It is united with Kinross in returning I mem. to the II. of C. Registered electors in 1838-39, 812. Valued rent, 26.4824. Scotch; annual value of real property in 1815, 37.9782.

CLACKMANNAN, a town of Scotland, cap. of the above co., on an eminence 190 ft. high, on the left bank of the Frith of Forth. Pop. about 2,000. It consists principally of one long unpaved street, and is a very unimportant place. On the W. of the town is Clackmannan Tower, the palace of King Robert Bruce, long the residence of a branch of the Bruce family, and now the property of the earl of Zetland. The par. church is a modern Gothic building. Debtors and 'criminals are sent to Stirling, the jail of which is partly maintained by the co. of Clackmannan.

CLAGENFURTH (Germ. Klagenfurt), a town of Illyria, gov. Laybach, cap. duchy of Carinthia, on the Glan, an affluent of the Drave, in an extensive plain, 21 m. E. Villach, and 40 m. N.N.W. Laybach. Pop. 12,480. It was formerly fortified; but its works were destroyed by the French in 1809. It has 4 suburbs, is well-built, with broad and regular streets. There are 5 squares, one of which has a leaden statue of the Empress Maria Theresa, and a group (indifferently executed) representing Hercules destroying the hydra. Another square contains the residence of the PrinceBishop of Gurk, with its galleries of paintings, statuary, &c., a rich cabinet of minerals, and an obelisk erected in honour of Francis I. There are 7 churches, 2 hospitals, several infirmaries, a lying-in hospital, workhouse, house of correction, lyceum with a public library, college, normal high school, Ursuline school for girls, an agricul tural society, and a theatre. This town is the seat of the court of appeal for the gov. of Laybach, and of municipal, provincial, and other courts of justice. It has a few manufactures of fine woollen and silk fabrics, and white lead. Clagenfurth is supposed by some to derive its name from the Emperor Claudius, and in its vicinity there are some ruins believed to be those of the ancient Tiburnia. It has several times been partially destroyed by fire. (Oesterr. Nat. Encycl. &c.)

CLAMECY, a town of France, dép. Nièvre, in which it holds the second rank, at the foot and on the declivity of a hill on the left bank of the Yonne, where it is joined by the Beauvron, by both of which it is intersected, 36 m. N.E. Nevers. Pop. (ex. com.) 5,000. Little remains of its ancient castle, and the massive walls by which it was formerly surrounded. It, however, contains several old Gothic churches, and a handsome modern castle surrounded by fine gardens, which stands in the Place de Vauvert. Clamecy has manufactures of common woollen cloths, fulling mills, dyeing houses, tanneries, &c., and a considerable trade in wood and charcoal, most of which are sent down the Yonne to Paris. (Hugo, art. Nièvre, &c.) CLARE, a marit. co. of Ireland, prov. Munster. It is in a great measure insulated, having Galway Bay on the N.; the Atlantic on the W.; the Shannon, by which it is separated from Kerry, Limerick, and Tipperary, on the S. and S.E.; and Galway on the N.E. Area, 802,352 acres, of which 259,584 are unimproved mountain and bog, and 18,665 water. Surface in parts almost mountainous; but it has a large extent of low level land. The low grounds, known by the name of the Corcasses, on the banks of the Shannon and Fergus, are almost equal to the very best grazing lands in Lincolnshire. The arable lands are mostly light, but fertile. Estates large; tillage farms very small, many being below 5, and very few above 60 or 70 acres. Agriculture extremely bad, but improv ing: it is still common in many parts to take a succession of corn crops till the land be completely exhausted. Principal crops, oats and potatoes; but wheat and barley are now rather extensively cultivated. Sea-weed and sea-sand are a good deal used as manure; and in the hilly parts the loy, or spade, is much employed in culti vation. Cottages mostly of stone, but without lime or other cement. Condition of the occupiers of small tillage farms and cottiers quite as bad as in most other parts of Ireland. Lime is the most important mineral. Manufactures have hardly any footing. Average rent of land, 118. 3d. an acre. Exclusive of the Shannon, the Fergus is the principal river. Clare has 9 baronies and 79 pa rishes, and sends 3 mem. to the H. of C., viz. 2 for the co., and 1 for the bor. of Ennis, the principal town in the co. Registered electors for the co., in 1838-39, 2.730. In 1831 Clare had 40,358 inhab. houses, 43,374 families, and 258,322 individuals, of whom 128,446 were males, and 129,876 females.

CLAUSTHAL or KLAUSTHAL, a town of the k. of Hanover, cap. of the mining captaincy (Berghauptmannschaft) of the same name, and the principal mining town of the Hartz; in a bare and bleak region on the top and slopes of a hill 1,740 ft. above the sea, 26 m. N.E. Göttingen, and 56 m. S. W. by S. Hanover. Pop. 9,070, or together with the adjacent town of Zellerfeld, about 13,250, mostly miners or persons connected with the mines and smelting houses. It has a desolate appearance; its houses are chiefly of wood, and even its principal church is of the same material. It contains a mining-school, supported by the king, and possessing an extensive collection of models of mines, mining buildings, machinery, &c., and a cabinet of the Hartz minerals. There is also a mint, at which about 14,000 silver dollars are coined weekly, and from 600 to 800 gold ducats yearly, a gymnasium, &c. The chief lead and silver mines in the Hartz are in the neighbourhood, next to which are the Silbersegen. The shaft of one of these mines reaches to 2,000 ft. below the level of the Baltic. The mines are drained by a tunnel, cut through the mountain to the small town of Grund, a distance of 6 m. The total length of this tunnel, however, with its branches, is nearly double this distance: it was commenced in 1777, and finished in 1799. All the machinery