Brampton, Croglin, and Renwick, at the base of the Pennine chain, W. to the sea, comprising an area of about 300,000 acres. On the E. side of the Pennine chain, from its N. extreme to the Coquet, the district, though hilly, has tolerably good pasture, and comprises a few breadths of well-cultivated land; S. of that stream, a large moorland tract extends through Northumberland, the middle of Durham and Yorkshire, to the Holm Moss in Cheshire, varying in breadth from 10 to 30 m., and in elevation from 500 to 1,000 ft.: its N. is its most sterile portion; but the whole tract consists of a series of monotonous wastes, furrowed, in the two N. cos., by a few narrow glens only; towards the S., these widen and become more frequent, but without much affecting the general aspect, which is preserved, for the most part, through the whole extent of the district. Betwixt it and the sea are the vales of the Tyne and Tees, and the great Yorkshire plain; the latter extending N. and S. between 60 and 70 m., with an average breadth of between 14 and 20 m.: it widens towards the S., and every where presents a gently undulating surface of fertile and well-cultivated land. The E. moorlands and wolds, bounding the York plain on that side, have, at their N. limit, the fertile vale of Pickering, extending about 35 m. E. and W., and 10 m. in the opposite direction. It presents the appearance of a drained lake, enclosed between the Hambledon hills and the Yorkshire wolds. The last-named tract, together with the Lincoln wolds, S. of the Humber, occupy about half the space between the German Ocean on the E., and the rivers Derwent and Trent on the W.: generally speaking, they form good pasture lands, interspersed in parts by a few sterile moors, and in others, by moderate breadths of good arable land. The plain of Holderness, N. of the Humber, and extending from the base of the wolds to the sea, has a strong clayey soil, producing heavy crops of wheat and beans, as well as luxuriant pasture, and ranks amongst the most productive districts in the kingdom; an alluvial tract, of somewhat similar character, also extends along the base of the Lincoln wolds between the Humber and Wash; the low line of coast, forming the E. limits of these tracts, has a submarine forest stretching along it, which is traceable for 1 or 2 m. in breadth between the high and low watermarks. The Cumbrian group of mountains occupies the central and S. portions of Cumberland, the W. and largest portion of Westmorland, and the N. and insulated portion of Lancashire. It extends N. and S. about 37 m., and E. and W. about as much. It contains the most elevated summits in the kingdom, and is intersected by deep narrow glens, some of which are occupied by lakes, that radiate in all directions from the central portion of the mass, so as to form several distinct ranges: the whole system declines more rapidly on the N. than the S. side. The highest and most remarkable summits are, Helvellyn (3,055 ft.), Scafell (3,166 ft.), Bowfell (2,911 ft.), Coniston Fell (2,577 ft.), High Pike (2,101 ft.), in the central part of the group; at the N. extreme are Skiddaw and Saddleback (3,022 ft. and 2,787 ft. respectively; and at the S. W. end, Blackcombe rises 1,919 ft. above the sea. The Cumbrian mountains are mostly bold, steep, and rugged; their slopes are in general covered with a fine green sward, affording good pasture for sheep, and have little of the tame, monotonous character that belongs to the Pennine range. Except in some of the glens, opening on the N. and W. sides, the cultivable land among these mountains is not very considerable. The lakes embosomed in these mountains rather resemble the reaches of a large river than the expanded figure usually considered as belonging to a lake. Winander Mere, the most extensive of these sheets of water, is between 10 and 11 m. long, and from 1 to 1 m. broad, with a depth, in some parts, of 35 fathoms. It has 13 or 14 small islets or holms, the largest of which contains about 30 acres ; its area, including these, is about 2,574 acres. Ulswater, the next in size, is about 8 m. in length, by 1 m. at the broadest part, and zigzags in a N.E. direction from Patterdale. Derwentwater, Bassenthwaite, Buttermere, Waswater, Ennerdale, and Coniston Mere, are the names of the more considerable amongst the remainder all of them abound in fish, chiefly trout, perch, pike, and eel; Ulswater, and one or two of the smaller tarns, have char; and Bassenthwaite salmon, which find their way thither by the Derwent. The scenery of the district occupied by the Cumbrian mountains is perhaps the most interesting and romantic of any in England; and in many parts, as at the head of Ulswater and the Kirkstone Pass, between that lake and Winander Mere, it assumes features of great power and magnificence. The line of road between Ambleside and Keswick, through the vale of St. John, may also be mentioned for the picturesque and beautiful scenery through which it winds: but the whole is too well known to require further notice. The poems and delineations of Southey and Wordsworth have made it, in some degree, classic ground; and it is annually traversed by thousands of tourists. The Cambrian mountains extend, on the W. side of the kingdom, from the Irish Sea to the Bristol Channel, occupying nearly the whole of Wales. Of these, the Snowdonian range is the chief: its principal chain stretches N.E. and S.W., the whole length of Caernarvonshire, from Penmanmawr on the N. to the point of the peninsula of Lleyn on the S. Several of its summits exceed 3,000 ft. in height: that of Wyddva (the highest pinnacle of the huge mountain mass bearing the general name of Snowdon) has an elevation of 3,571 ft.: and commands a view of surpassing grandeur, which is only limited by the horizon. Two or three other chains branch from this main one, in a S. direction, many of whose summits reach 2,400 ft., and one (the Arennig Mawr) 2,809 ft. The country included between these ranges has a few picturesque and well-sheltered vales, such as those of Festiniog and Dolgelley; but its general character is that of an unreclaimed pasture tract, comprising the most magnificent alpine scenery in the kingdom. Anglesea, on its W. side, has several small ridges and detached hills and peaks, but it cannot be called mountainous. On its E. side the beautiful vale of Clwyd extends between the Hierathog hills and another parallel range stretching between it and the aestuary of the Dec; the vales of Mold and Llangollen, also celebrated for their beauty and fertility, extend on the same side, towards the great Cheshire plain. The Berwyn mountains stretch across the whole principality, S. of the Snowdon ranges, from Llangollen, to the middle of Cardigan Bay: the highest summit, CaderIdris (2,914 ft.), gives its name to the portion of the chain between it and the sea, which narrows to a mere ridge, in parts, not more than 4 or 5 m. across. The general character of the country comprised within the Berwyn range is of the same kind as the former, though with less elevated and abrupt outlines; towards the vale of the Upper Severn, and between it and the Plynlimmon chain, a few strips of cultivated land occur. The famous mountain, whence this chain takes its name, is 2,463 ft. in height, and gives birth to the two great rivers, the Severn and Wye, flowing S. to the Bristol Channel, and to the Rheidiol, which has its embouchure at Aberystwith, on Cardigan Bay. From Plynlimmon the chain extends in a curve to the Bredden hills, W. of the Shropshire plain, whose highest summit reaches 1,330 ft. The whole of the Plynlimmon range is characterised by smooth gradual slopes, and a succession of regularly rounded summits, clothed with a fine green sward, that supports numerous flocks of a small finewoolled breed of sheep. The hilly tract extending through the S. of Shropshire to Wenlock Edge, may be considered as a continuation of this range, and is characterised by the same general features: its highest summit (Clee Hill) attains 1,805 ft. The mountain region, extending S. of the Plynlimmon chain to the Towy, and stretching E. and W. between the Wye and Dyfi, forms the largest waste in the kingdom, and consists of a succession of rounded, barren hills, enclosing vast morasses, amongst which a few spots covered with coarse herbage are sparingly scattered, and afford summer pasturage to a small hardy breed of sheep: Dwggan Hill, near the centre of this cheerless region, is the highest summit, and attains 2,071 ft. The Epyut hills, on its S. border, enclose many strips of good arable land, and are themselves clothed with fine pasture; but the country on the W. side of this great waste, on to Cardigan Bay, is mostly of a rugged, desolate aspect, and comprises a series of table-lands, with broken surfaces and scanty vegetation: on the N. side the Ystwith, however, and along the courses of that stream, and the Rheidiol, especially near Hafod, the scenery is picturesque, and includes many fine cataracts; and along the coast are several large pasture tracts of various degrees of fertility. S. of this, on to St. David's Head and the Bristol Channel, the country consists mostly of unrecla med table-lands of unequal surface, with occasional ridges and detached hills, all of a rugged, sterile aspect, with the exception of the district round Milford Haven, and the Peninsula of Gower, between the bays of Swansea and Carmarthen in the Bristol Channel, which are fertile and well cultivated. The Radnor and Black Forest ranges, that stretch S. from the centre of the Plynlimmon chain, on either side the Wye, are mostly covered with verdure, and form good sheep-walks: their offsets stretch into Herefordshire and terminate in that fertile and undulating plain. The districts on either side the range, especially the vales of the Wye and Usk, include much cultivated land. Two other main ranges complete the Cambrian mountain system, those of the Forest Fawr and Glamorgan: the former stretches through Carmarthenshire and Brecknockshire to Abergavenny, on the Usk; the highest summits are the beacons named, from those counties, which are respectively 2,596 ft., and 2,862 ft. high.__It comprises excellent and extensive sheep-walks. The Glamorgan range extends S. of the last in an E. and W. direction from Pontypool on the Usk to Swansea, about 36 m., and in the widest part (from Merthyr | Tydvil to Llantrissent) about 15 m. The summits are mostly table-lands, with steep declivities on either side, intersected by deep narrow ravines, the whole having a rugged, cheerless aspect, but enclosing the most extensive coal and iron deposits in the kingdom: the tract between the two last-named ranges is also of the same sterile character, and wholly unreclaimed; but the plain stretching from the S. declivity of the Glamorgan chain to the Bristol Channel has a rich productive soil, and may, independently of its vast mineral treasures, be considered as the best and most fertile district of the principality: an alluvial tract, 3 or 4 m. in width, extends from the Taff to the Monmouth plain, and is of a similar character. The Welsh lakes are numerous, but for the most part small and uninteresting, rather absorbed by the majestic scenery round them than forming one of its essential features, as is the case with the Cumbrian lakes. The Bala Pool or Llyn Tegid is the largest of the Welsh sheets of water, and extends 4 m. from S.W. to N.E., with an average breadth of 1 m. and depth of 40 ft.; its waters cover an uneven rocky bed, and are remarkable for their purity and clearness: in common with most of the others, it abounds in red trout, pike, and eel, but the gwyniad, or silver skate, is peculiar to it. The Dee issues from its N. E. end, flowing by the vale of Llangollen, and the Cheshire plain, to the Irish Sea; the Clwyd, and the Conwy, discharging on the same side; the Seiout, Maw, and Teify, in the St. George's, and the Towy, Wye, and Severn, in the Bristol Channel, are the other chief rivers that originate in this the wildest and most mountainous portion of the kingdom. The Devonian chain, stretching through the S. W. peninsula of England, between the Bristol and the British Channels, is the last that requires any especial notice in this sketch. Dartmoor Forest, forming its wild. est and most elevated portion, is an unreclaimed and extensive waste, affording summer pasturage for the store cattle of the lower and more fertile tracts surrounding it: the whole may be considered as a table-land (the average height of which is above 1,600 ft.), with an unequal surface, rising in large rounded swells, with corresponding concavities, and strewed with large boulders and fragments of granite, which also rises through the soil in irregular masses, or tors. Exmoor, at the N.E. extreme of the range, and considerable tracts intermediate between the two, are also unreclaimed, and for the most part of a sterile character: the same description also applies to the central and northern parts of Cornwall, onward to the Land's End; but the less elevated districts on either side the range contain many extensive breadths of fertile land, more especially on the S. One of these, extending from Dartmoor to the sea, between the Dart and Yealm, and known as the South Hams, ranks among the most fertile corn districts in the kingdom. The chain gradually declines from Dartmoor to the Land's End, and also becomes more contracted in that direction. The chief summits are, Dunkerry Beacon, on Exmoor (1,668 ft.); Cawsand Hill (1,782 ft.), Rippon Tor(1,549 ft.), Butterton (1,203 ft.), all on Dartmoor; and in Cornwall, Brown Willy (1,368 ft.), Carnmarth (849 ft.), Carn Brea (697 ft.); and, lastly, the cape itself (about 70 ft.). The Taw and the Torridge, which discharge in the Bristol Channel, and the Fal, Fowey, Tamar, Plym, Dart, Teign, and Exe, descending to the British Channel, are the chief rivers of the district. On the N. coast sand accumulates rapidly in many of the creeks and inlets, forming in some places extensive dunes, beneath which the remains of ancient churches and villages have been discovered. On the beaches of Bude Bay, and a few others, this sand is chiefly composed of comminuted shells, and forms the chief manure of those localities. The surface features of the central region of England, whence her wealth and importance are mainly derived, though extremely diversified, are almost wholly devoid of the magnificence and romantic beauty of those previously described. The great plain of Cheshire and Shropshire, on its W. side, extends about 50 m. in a N. and S. direction, and from 25 to 30 m, in the opposite: a few heathy moorlands occur within its limits, but by far the greater portion is very fertile; the soil is either rich sand, of a reddish colour, or strong loam. This plain is remarkable for its verdure, and is one of the principal grazing districts, being largely appropriated to the dairy husbandry. Of a similar character are the vales of Severn, Evesham, and Gloucester. The first of these extends about 70 m. on either side the Severn, with a breadth varying from 5 to 12 m., and is alike fertile and beautiful. The district S. of these last has probably the most broken and irregular surface of any part of the kingdom; it is, however, for the most part fertile and well cultivated. Beyond it are the Mendip, Quantock, and Black Down hills, and the fertile and beautiful vales of Taunton and Exe. The basins of the Trent and Thames occupy the remainder of the central region: the former, in a general point of view, may be considered as forming an extensive plain, with gradual swells and broad intermediate vales, but with very few remarkable elevations. The vale of Belvoir is one of its most fertile portions. In the district forming the basin of the Thames, and drained by that great river and its various tributaries, the surface is, for the most part, gently undulating, forming wide vales, often extending into plains the principal elevations are near the valley of the Thames, but none of their summits reach the height of 1,000 ft. The geological character of the tract is perhaps the most diversified of any, which, of course, causes a corresponding variety in the soils; these, however, on the whole, are of a light chalky nature, and moderately fertile, with but few absolute wastes of any extent the higher constitute the least fertile portions, most of which are obviously indebted to skilful cultivation and the humidity of the climate for a great proportion of their productiveness. The most fertile tract is the vale of Aylesbury, which has a fine loamy soil, not sur passed in fertility by any in the kingdom. The chalk hills, which (with some interruptions) range from the S. side of the Wash to the Thames, between Goring and Henley, to which part the name of the Chiltern Hills applies, form the S.E. limits of the basin, sloping gradually in this direction to the Thames, but with many abrupt escarpments on the other; whence extensive views are commanded of the country between the basins of the Trent and Thames, through which the Ouse, Nen, and Welland flow N.E. to the Fens, draining Bedfordshire, Hants, Northampton, and Rutland, in their course through a district possessing very few striking inequali. ties of surface. The courses of these rivers to their outfalls in the inlet of the German Ocean, called the Wash, are by channels and embankments, artificially formed, through the whole of the extensive, flat, and marshy district known as the Fens. (See BEDFORD LEVEL.) Deposits of mud and sand are constantly and rapidly accumulating on this portion of the E. coast, so that it is not without considerable difficulty that the outfalls of the rivers are kept open, and the harbours accessible. Additions are always being made to the surface of the district, by encroachments on the sea; and a plan is now (1840) in progress for securing no less than 170,000 acres of fertile land, extending seaward between the ports of Boston, Wisbeach, and Lynn Regis, all of which is, comparatively speaking, of recent formation. The great plain S. E. of the Fens, comprising Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, has an undulating surface throughout; but the inequalities are greater towards the N. extreme, where, in some places, an elevation of 200 ft. above the sea is attained. In this quarter it is not very fertile, but it has been wonderfully improved; and many parts of Norfolk and Suffolk that half a century ago were mere sandy wastes, have, by dint of marling and the introduction of the turnip culture, become among the best and most productive barley lands in the kingdom. The soil of Essex is mostly a strong clayey loam, ranking in the first class of wheat and bean lands. That portion of England extending from Bagshot Heath to Salisbury Plain, and comprising both, may be considered as a sort of elevated table-land, no part of which, probably, is less than 300 ft. above the sea: Thorney Hill is 610 ft., and Westbury Down 775 ft. Both these eminences are on Salisbury Plain, the highest portion of the tract. This celebrated plain extends about 22m. from E. to W., and 15 m. in the opposite direction; it is traversed by many considerable depressions, and has a light scanty soil, ill adapted to cultivation, but affording good sheep-walks. The part of the country of this tract between Chichester and Southampton Water has a fair proportion of tolerably fertile and well-cultivated land; but further W., the Hants and Dorset downs occupy the surface nearly to Dorchester, and form a continuous heathy, dreary, and sterile tract, with but a scanty proportion even of sheep pasture. To the E. of the Anton river are the chalk ranges of the N. and S. downs, which extend round the weald district of Sussex, Kent, and Surrey; Beachy Head forming the E. extreme of the S. Downs, and the bold chalk cliffs of the Dover Straits that of the N. Downs. The Alton hills extend between and connect the two. The first are clothed with fine pasture, and form excellent sheep-walks; at their base extends the fertile plain of Chichester. The tract of which the N. Downs forms the W. portion is, for the most part, well cultivated, and here and there attains considerable fertility, though, generally speaking, the soil is meagre and arid. The weald district, enclosed by the last ranges, has in some parts an undulating unequal surface; and there are a few detached hills that attain considerable elevation: taken as a whole, however, it may be considered as forming an extensive plain of about 1,000 sq. m. in extent, the more level portions of which are from 100 to 200 ft. above the sea. soil is principally clay; in parts very stiff and adhesive, in others mixed with sand in various proportions. The whole is under cultivation, and includes many breadths of luxuriant pasture; at the E. extreme is Romney The Marsh, an alluvial tract of about 50,000 acres, which has been reclaimed from the sea, and is defended from its encroachments by embankments. This marsh is, for the most part, remarkably fertile. Geology. A brief sketch of the geological structure of England will be best accomplished by commencing with the mountain ranges on its W. side, and thence, following the general direction of the successive rock strata: of these, the primary and transition, or (as they are now more correctly designated) Plutonic and metamorphic formations, constitute the mass in the Cumbrian and Cambrian groups; and that of the S.W. peninsula, all of which have a general resemblance in their mineral composition, though presenting some points of local and minor difference: thus, granite, which is only traced to a very limited extent in one or two parts of the Cumbrian system, and scarcely at all in Wales, is extensively developed in the S. W. peninsula, where it occupies a considerable part of the most elevated portion of the range, in large interrupted masses, from Dartmoor to the Land's End; beyond which the Longship Rocks, and the Scilly Islands, continue the formation in the same general direction, and are supposed (with much probability) to have once formed continuous portions of the range. The veins of tin ore also appear to be limited to this last district. Neither gneiss nor mica slate (so abundant in the Grampians) occurs, to any extent, in either of the ranges under consideration; clay and graywacke schists, of very various composition and texture, forming the prevailing rocks in all of them. The whole of these strata are traversed by beds and veins of porphyry, hornblende, and trap, and are for the most part considerably inclined and contorted, every where presenting indications of powerful disturbing causes, and of having been upheaved, but there are no traces of volcanic action. In the Carnarvonshire ranges elevated beaches occur at the height of 1,000 ft. and upwards above the sea level, which are formed of gravel and fragments of recent shells, precisely similar to the present marine beaches; similar beaches also occur on the N. coast of Cornwall and S. coast of Devon, from 20 to 30 ft. above the present reach of the tides. The veins of tin and copper which intersect the strata in Devon and Cornwall make the S.W. peninsula one of the most important mining districts in the kingdom. These veins, or lodes, have all a general E. and W. direction, and are intersected by others in an opposite (hence called cross-courses), which, by heaving or disturbing the regular course of the lodes, are often the cause of great perplexity and expense in mining operations; a large dike of this kind traverses Cornwall, from one coast to the other, through its chief mining district, intersecting and disturbing the course of every one of its lodes. Besides these lodes of tin and copper, which furnish the chief mineral riches of this range, lead ore occurs in some of the cross-courses, and has been extensively worked at Beer Alston on the Tamar, and one or two other localities: iron is also found in similar dikes near Lostwithiel, in Cornwall, and at the Berryhead on the coast of Devon; from each of which places many thousand tons are annually shipped for the supply of the Welsh furnaces. Plumbago and manganese occur on the E. side of Dartmoor, both which are worked to some extent, and shipped at Exeter for the manufacturing districts. Porcelain, pipe, and common potters' clay, are also productions occurring in this tract, and are largely shipped for the Staffordshire and other potteries; granite and roofing slate are also quarried in a few localities. This last forms the most important production in the corresponding rock formations of Wales, the quarries of Penrhyn and Llanberris, in Carnarvonshire, being the largest, and furnishing the finest slates in the kingdom; some copper veins also occur in various parts of this group, though of very minor importance compared with those of Cornwall; in the Parys mountain, however, on the N. side of Anglesea, a very extensive deposit of that ore was discovered in the course of last century, and formed for a considerable period the most productive mine in the kingdom; it is still worked, though at present the produce is very limited. (See ANGLESEA.) On the W. side of the same island mona marble, or verd antique, is quarried for various ornamental purposes, at the termination of a large porphyry dike which traverses the district. In the Cumbrian group, the most remarkable mineral production is the famous graphite, or plumbago, which occurs in an irregular pipe-vein at Botaller in Borrodale. A few lead veins also occur, and are worked to a limited extent, on the N. E. side of the range; at Coniston, copper veins are wrought on a small scale; and near Ulverston, hæmatetic ore, which produces iron of a very ductile quality, which is used in the manufacture of carding-wire; a few quarries of roofing slate are also worked in the same neighbourhood. Beyond the limits of the three main groups we have been describing, similar tock formations occur in a few isolated ridges, of which the most prominent are the Malvern Hills, that traverse the cos. of Worcester and Hereford; the Lickie Hill, N.E. of the last; the Charnwood range in Leicestershire; and a few intermediate rocks along the N. side of Warwickshire. Basaltic rocks also occur in the Wrekin and Caradoc hills, and along the limits of the mountain line, both in Derby and Durham: a large basaltic dike also traverses Yorkshire, from Middleton to the seacoast S. of Whitby. The mountain lime and coal formations are the next in order, being limited on the W. by those last described; and on the E. by the lias, which formation may be traced, by a waving but continuous line, through the kingdom, from the N.E. coast (between the mouth of the Tees and Whitby), by Charnwood Forest. Evesham, Gloucester, Bath, and Axminster, to the S.W. coast at Lyme Regis. All the mineral riches of the kingdom, as well as the greater part of its manufacturing establishments, are situated on the W. side of this line, by which the three lower of what are usually termed secondary formations are limited. In the mountain lime of the Pennine range are the chief lead mines of the kingdom; in that part of it which extends through Allendale and Alston Moor, on the E. side of Cross Fell, the ore occurs in E. and W. veins, that are heaved and disturbed by N. and S. courses, as those in Cornwall. In the Derby portion of the range many lead mines also occur, that have been wrought from a very remote æra; and others in the same forniation in Flintshire, near the æstuary of the Dee. The coal fields to which England, and, indeed, the empire, is mainly indebted for her manufacturing superiority (see ante, p. 451.), may be thus briefly enumerated: those of Northumberland and Durħain extend from the Tweed to the Tees, between the mountain lime and the sea-coast; the most northerly has only been partially explored, and is worked, on a limited scale, chiefly for local purposes. The coal field of S. Northumberland and Durham extends about 50 m. N. and S., with an average breadth of from 12 to 15 m. The seams or beds dip S.E., and crop out successively in an opposite direction, so that none of the beds extend through the entire limits of the district: the two thickest and best (high and low main) are 6 ft. thick, and are separated by strata of shale, sandstone, and smaller seams of coal, of the aggregate average thickness of 360 ft. The mines in this district furnish annually a vast quantity of coal, of which about 4,700,000 tons are sent to London and the S. part of the kingdom, and 1,000,000 to foreign parts. Various and very discordant estimates have been framed of the period that will probably be required to exhaust this vast deposit of fuel. But the district has not been sufficiently explored to admit of such estimates being framed on any thing like solid grounds; and, no doubt, were any deficiency in the supply of coal apprehended, methods would be found for materially diminishing the immense quantities now left in the mines, as well as for reducing the waste. The Whitehaven is a small but valuable field, between the Cumbrian mountains and the Irish Sea, under which the adits of several of its mines are driven: the coal is exported in considerable quantities to Ireland and else where. The Yorkshire and Derby fields extend N. and S. about 70 m., from Leeds onward; their breadth, between Halifax and Aberford, being about 25 m., but it diminishes considerably through the Derbyshire part, to its S. extreme, near Nottingham. Most of the coal raised in Yorkshire is consumed in its extensive woollen, iron, and hardware manufactories, and in the domestic economy of its numerous population. The Derby field supplies, through the medium of canals, many of the midland cos. The Lancashire field is parted by a range of hills from that of Yorkshire, and extends along their base from Macclesfield to Oldham, thence N. to Rochdale and Colne, and W. to Prescott near Liverpool, having Manchester on its S. border. Coal is excavated in various parts of this extensive field, which affords all but inexhaustible supplies for the various uses of the most important manufacturing district in the kingdom. S. of the above, occur some smaller fields in Leicestershire and Warwickshire, in the vicinity of Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Tamworth, Atherstone, and Coventry. The Staffordshire field extends N. and S. about 10 m., with a breadth varying from 5 to 7 m. Numerous beds of coal are worked in various parts of this field, which also furnishes potters' clay, and is the site of the potteries. The Wolverhampton and Dudley field, in the same co., extends about 14 m. N. and S., with an average breadth of 4 m., and is the most valuable of any in the central part of the kingdom. Two beds of ironstone, each of considerable thickness, also traverse the field, and supply the innumerable furnaces of the district. The whole rests on transition lime, abounding in beautifully preserved fossils. A few small fields also occur in Shropshire and Herefordshire, of which the chief is that of Colebrook Dale, 6 m. long by 2 m. in breadth. This formation is also traversed by ironstone, and many furnaces and foundries are established in the locality, though of late years it has not maintained its former comparative importance. The forest of Dean includes a valuable coal basin, which (geologically considered) is the most perfect of any; the different beds of coal and sandstone being regularly arranged in a rounded concavity, and resting on millstone grit and mountain lime: its extent is about 10 by 6 m. The most S. of the English fields extends about 25 m., with a breadth of 5 or 6 m., through the cos. of Gloucester and Somerset, on either side the Avon; but it is overlaid in many parts by more recent formations, and the coal seams are thin, and of inferior quality. The last of those valuable deposits now left to notice, and probably also the most extensive and important, is the great coal field of S. Wales, extending about 100 m., from the Usk, in Monmouthshire, through the cos. of Glamorgan, Carmarthen, and Pembroke, to St. Bride's Bay, and comprising an area of about 1,200 sq. m. There are 23 available seams, of the aggregate average thickness of 95 ft., arranged in a prolonged concavity, and dipping both from the N. and S. towards a central axis; the deepest part of the field being near Neath, where coal occurs 700 fathoms below the highest portions of the seams. The quality of the yield varies considerably; that on the W. side being mostly what is termed dry coal, and the other bituminous coking coal, adapted to the smelting of iron ore. Extensive beds of that mineral also occur in this district, which is now the seat of the greatest iron-works in the empire. It has been supposed that the Welsh coal field is of itself capable of supplying a demand as extensive as that of the entire kingdom at the present time for from 1,500 to 2,000 years! The new red sand occupies nearly all the remaining portion of the surface on to the lias; it consists of beds of clay, marl, gravel, sand, &c., of various texture, the débris of older rock strata. Extensive deposits of gypsum, and vast and all but inexhaustible beds of rock salt occur in this formation, which will be elsewhere noticed. The upper secondary strata occupy the surface from the W. limits of the lias, previously described, to those of the chalk formation on the E.; which last has the same general direction, though forming a much greater curve, which terminates at either extreme of the lias. The strata included within these limits are of very various character, and abound in fossil remains: in some parts they furnish fine freestone for building purposes; in others, lime, fullers' earth, and pipe-clay. Their aggregate thickness has been estimated at between 2,000 and 3,000 ft., all formed by deposition in an oceanic basin, as the character and abundance of the fossil reinains clearly indicate. The green sand formation rests on those of the oolite, and is succeeded by that of chalk, both abounding in marine testaceous remains; the average thickness of the latter, when fully developed, being about 1,000 ft. It occupies the S. coast, from the Reculver Cliffs to Folkestone, and from Beachy Head to Brighton, stretching inland from the former round the weald district, and from the latter inland towards Salisbury, and thence over the Hampshire and Dorset downs nearly to Dorchester: the Inkpen, in Hants (1,011 ft.), is the highest summit of the chalk. The general dip of all the strata, from the lias to the chalk inclusive, is S. E., and very gradual; a line from the N. escarpment of the chalk in Berkshire to the Malvern Hills, would intersect the Basset edges of the entire series. The deposits above these are chiefly limited to the S. E. cos., and have little of variety or well-marked character to distinguish them; the chief are those of the London and plastic clays, occupying the basin of the Thames. Formations of similar character extend along the sea-coast, from Brighton to Southampton, and occupy a portion of the Isle of Wight. The sandy strata that occur in several of the S. cos., and known by the general name of Bagshot sand; the mixture of ferrugineous sand and clay with chalk fragments (crag) that occupy the E. parts of Norfolk and Suffolk; and the still more recent alluvial deposits of Holderness, the Fens, and Romney Marsh; all obviously constituted of the debris of older rock formations, and the latter resulting from atmospheric, oceanic, and other presently existing influences now in active operation. Our limits will not permit more than a brief reference to other interesting geological phenomena; such as the boulders and fragments of rocks from the Cumbrian and Welsh mountains, that are strewed over some of the midland cos.; the beds of chalk, flint, and gravel, that occur at great distances from the main formations, and are found capping summits of others, wholly different; and the remains of mammiferous animals in the lime caverns of York and Devon; such as those of the extinct species of the elephant, hyana, bear, &c., which must once have ranged over the districts in which these relics are deposited. The only medicinal springs of importance are those of the cos. Derby, Gloucester, and Somerset, which will be found fully described under the heads of their respective localities. Climate. The British sky is truly said by Tacitus to be crebris imbribus ac nebulis fœdum, but also to be without the asperitas frigorum. (Tit. Agric. $12.) The climate of England is chiefly characterised by the absence of extremes in temperature, by humidity, and by almost incessant variations within a limited range, peculiarities ascribable to the geographical position of the country, in contiguity with an extensive continent on one hand, and a vast ocean on the other: the latter with nearly the same temperature throughout the year, and exerting an equalising influ ence over the contiguous atmosphere; the other with a varying temperature, above that of the ocean in summer, and lower during the winter months. Hence the origin and direction of the prevailing winds at different periods of the year, according to which ever of those great surfaces exert most rarefying power: those blowing from the continent being comparatively dry, whilst those from the ocean, being charged with its exhalations, bring the chief part of the rain that descends, 2-3ds of the whole of it falling on the W. side of the kingdom. Rains are more prevalent during the summer and autumnal months, when the higher relative temperature of the continent, and greater rarefaction of the atmosphere in contact with it, cause aerial currents from the ocean to set in that direction, in order to supply the comparative vacuum; whilst the E. and N.E., winds, that frequently prevail in winter and spring, are attributable to the higher temperature of the sea at those periods. According to a series of observations made under the direction of the Royal Society, the S. W. is the most frequent wind in every month of the year, but is more prevalent in July and August than in any other; the N.E. prevails most in Jan., and from March to June, inclusive; whilst the N.W. is most frequent from Nov. to March, and least so in Sept. and Oct. It also appears, from the same observations, that rain is less prevalent in March than in Nov., in the proportion of 7 to 12 in April than Oct., in the ratio of 1 to 2; and in May than Sept., in the ratio of 3 to 4: hence the summer, autumn, and earlier part of winter, are the most humid portions of the year. The minor differences of climate that exist within the kingdom itself are wholly in accordance with the above views and observations: in Cornwall, the annual average quantity of rain falling is 45 in., and in the W. part of the kingdom, generally, it is found to vary from 50 to 51 in.; in the S. E. counties, and also in the metropolis and its vicinity, the quantity is only from 20 to 25 in.; whilst Norfolk has, in all probability, the least humid climate in the kingdom: as yet, however, sufficient data do not exist to make other than an approximate calculation of the average that falls in any of the districts, and of course the general average of the whole can only be stated in the same qualified way. The estimate made by Dr. Dalton appears to be, on the whole, the most precise and satisfactory on this point: and he makes the whole annual quantity falling on the surface of England and Wales, 31 in.; to which he adds a depth of 5 in supplied from the atmosphere in the form of dew, and calculates that 23 in. of the whole are carried off by evaporation, and the remaining 13 in. through the medium of the various rivers to the ocean. We have previously noticed the limited range of the thermometer, which at the coldest period (Jan.) seldom falls much below the freezing point, and at the warmest (July and Aug.) as rarely rises higher than 800 Fahr., though occasional instances of greater variation may be cited. In the N. cos. from their contiguity to the sea on either side, the range is still more limited, rarely exceeding 759 or falling more than 30 or 40 below zero: so that their mean annual temperature is within 20 or 3° of those on the S. coast. In a general view, however, the influence of the ocean in tempering the atmosphere (as well as in the humidity it imparts) is greatest on the W. side of the kingdom, and most so within the limits of the S.W. peninsula; the temperature of the ocean on that side being, during the coldest season, rarely so low as 50°, whilst that of the German Ocean, on the other, except in the height of summer, seldom exceeds 45° Fahr. On the whole, the most obvious difference that occurs in the local climates of the N. and S. parts of the kingdom is the lateness of spring in the former as compared with the latter; at an average about a fortnight between the cos. N. of the Mersey and Humber, and those of the S. and S. W. The local effect of the W. mountain ranges is considerable, and tends to increase, in a greater ratio than would otherwise be the case, the quantity of rain falling in their vicinity; but, as a whole, the elevation of the surface is no where so considerable as to have any remarkable influence on the general character of the climate. The fens on the E. coast, and the wolds of Kent and Sussex, are the only tracts of any extent where the superfluous moisture would, but for artificial means, be retained long enough to generate miasma; in almost every other part of the country the surface has sufficient elevation and inequality to facilitate the free percolation of water, and to conduct the superfluity by natural means to the numerous streams that intersect it; so that no where can its physical structure be said to exert an injurious influence on the climate. The more general enclosure and cultivation of the surface within the last century must also have greatly augmented these facilities, and improved the salubrity of the climate, which, however, as regards its chief characteristics, seems to be much the same as when Cæsar and Tacitus described it. There appears but little foundation for the notion once prevalent that the climate has deteriorated, and become colder; an inference from the fact of vineyards having once been cultivated to some extent in various parts of the country; but the same accounts also prove that verjuice formed no inconsiderable part, and in some summers constituted the only produce of these vineyards. It is probable that a better result than this might be obtained in the present day, were favourable spots selected, and any probable advantage to be derived from the culture of the vine. The mean daily range of the thermometer on an average of the whole year has been estimated at 11° for the metropolis, 14° for the midland counties generally, and 80 for Cornwall; but the extent of the daily range of course varies with the different seasons, being greatest when the sun has most influence, and the processes of evaporation and radiation are in most active operation. The mean difference between the coldest and the warmest months of the year has been stated at, for London 260, Cornwall 1840, and England generally 244; but these, and similar calcu. lations, can only be considered as probable approx imations to the truth, deduced from such series of observations as exist; which, however, are far too few and limited to make further details or generalisations of any practical utility. The great drawbacks upon the climate are the prevalence of cold, biting N.E. winds in April, May, and June, which frequently render them the most disagreeable season of the year; and the occasional occurrence of wet summers and harvests. The crops in England are very rarely injured by droughts; but they not unfrequently suffer from excess of humidity. In Cornwall, where the climate is most equal, and the winters the mildest, the moisture and coolness of the summers are such that the fruit is inferior in flavour to that raised in the more E. and midland counties, at the same time that it arrives later at maturity. Vegetable Productions.-The Flora of the kingdom comprises between 1,400 and 1,500 indigenous species of phaneogamous plants, of which upwards of 100 belong to the grass family: these, together with the furze (Ulex europaus and nanus), the three common heaths (tetralix, cinerea, and vulgaris), and the different kinds of rushes and sedges, occupy a very large surface, and perhaps characterise better than any other the nature and capabilities of the tracts they occupy. The oak (Quercus robur) is the king of native British trees, and supplies the timber of which our finest ships are built. Hence the oak is intimately associated with the maritime glories of England. Take it for all in all, it is probably the best timber of which we have any certain knowledge. Some is harder, some more difficult to rend, and some less capable of being broken across; but none contains all the three qualities in such great and equal proportions; and thus, for at once supporting a weight, resisting a strain, and not splintering by a cannon-shot, it is superior to every other timber. In favourable soils it will flourish at an elevation of 700 ft. The ash, alder, and hawthorn, thrive, under similar circumstances, at 800 ft.; the fir (P. sylvestris the only indigenous species) at 1,000 ft.; the mountain ash, and some of the smaller and prostrate varieties of the willow tribe, ascend nearly to the highest summits; whilst the hornbeam, lime, maple, poplar, and elm, flourish only in localities much less elevated than any of the preceding, The beech and sycamore reach 750 and 800 ft. respectively; but these, though long perfectly naturalised, are foreign introductions, as are also the larches, pines, chestnut, horse-chestnut, and many others that flourish and attain to considerable size in the extensive parks and plantations of the kingdom. Of indigenous fruits, the list is very scanty; the pear, crab, medlar, wild cherry, bullace, raspberry, blackberry, gooseberry, currant, strawberry, and cranberry, being nearly, if not quite, all that can be so called; and the greater part of these, in their natural state, can scarcely claim to rank as such in the more common acceptation of the word. Every one is ready to admit that England is indebted to commerce, or to her intercourse with other nations, for a very large proportion of her superior wealth and comforts. But it is now seen that her obligations in this respect are really much greater than is generally supposed. We are not indebted to foreign countries for mere luxuries and superfluities, but for the greater part of those plants and vegetables that supply the largest portion of our food. We have brought from abroad all our bread corns, our potatoes, most part of our garden stuffs and fruits; with hops, turnips, and a vast variety of useful and ornamental vegetable products. But it is the good fortune of England that most of these are so admirably suited to the soil, that, unless the contrary were known, they might be supposed to be indigenous. Those species of fruits that require a powerful sun to bring them to maturity do not, indeed, answer in our climate, except artificial means be employed in ripening them. But the more useful kinds attain to perfection. Solum præter | oleam vitemque, et cetera calidioribus terris oriri sueta, patiens frugum, fecundum; tarde mitescunt citò proveniunt; eademque utriusque rei causa, multus humor terrarumque cœlique. (Tacit. Agric. § 12.) Of the smaller herbaceous plants our limits only permit the notice of a few most characteristic of the features of an English landscape, or which are otherwise distinguished for their beauty and rarity. Of these, the various grasses that may almost be said to be in a state of constant growth, and to cover so large a portion of the surface, in a literal sense, with perpetual verdure, claim precedence; of flowers, the daisy, primrose, cowslip, violet, and lesser celandine, are the most common and most universal favourites, next which, perhaps, the woodbine, eglantine, hyacinth, harebell, and goldcups, contribute more largely to the adornment of the scenery of the less common kinds, the tamarisk, musk, gentian, and a few others, are limited to the S. W. peninsula; the hop, briony, pheasant eye, &c., to the midland cos.; the juniper, parnassia, and a few others, to the more elevated regions of Wales, and the N. cos.; and the water lily can only be considered in its native locality when expanding its fine flowers on the surface of the Cumbrian lakes. The foxglove, henbane, hemlock, nightshade (Atropa), and the Cicuta virosa of the Cambridge fens, are almost_the only species that possess active medicinal qualities. The woad, madder, teazel, hop, flax, buckwheat, clovers, tares, and melilots; together with the carrot, parsnip, cabbage, sea kale, and asparagus, comprise the chief indigenous species available for economical purposes; whilst the misletoe and ivy claim a passing notice from traditional associations. Of cryptogamous plants there exist about 300 distinct species of moss, and upwards of 500 of Algae, that is, lichens and sea weeds: two or three of the lichens are identical with those extensively used as dyes, but they scarcely occur any where in sufficient abundance to be worth collecting: various species of sea weed are thrown abundantly on some parts of the sea-coast, and collected as a manure, but are no where, we believe, converted into kelp or barilla. Zoology. Without recurring to an older geological period, when the animals, whose bones are found in the limestone caves of Yorkshire and Devon, occupied the country, we find that, within a comparatively recent period, it was in a great degree overspread with vast forests, the abodes of many wild animals, which, as well as their coverts, have now wholly disappeared. The bear may be traced as an inhabitant of these down to A. D. 1057, and may have existed later the beaver to 1188, when its habits were noticed and described by Giraldus Cambrensis, as witnessed by him on the Teifi: many notices of wolves occur so recently as the reign of Edw. 1., notwithstanding the war of extirpation waged against them by Edgar. The New Forest in Hampshire was the latest resort of the wild boar, which must have been extirpated during the period of the last civil war the wild cat has disappeared from its latest haunts - Cumberland and Westmorland-within living memory, but is still found in Scotland. The wild ox (Urus) has only escaped a similar fate, by having been preserved as a curiosity in Chillingworth Park near Berwick, and in one or two other localities, where this fierce and distinct breed (with cream-coloured hide, black muzzle, and downwardbent horns) may still be seen. The stag, fallow deer, and roe have also been saved by similar interference and protection. The indigenous quadrupeds now existent in a wild state are the fox, badger, polecat, beech and pine martens, otter, weasel, steat, hedgehog, mole, land and water shrews, squirrel, hare, rabbit, dormouse, field and water lemmings, black rat, common, field, and harvest mice, and six species of the bat tribe. Of cetaceous mammalia, the razor-back and porpoise are the only species that occur with any frequency, though such lists as comprise stragglers notice 13 or 14 others, as of occasional occurrence on the coasts. The Norway rat is an ascertained immigrant, which has warred with the indigenous species, and made it by far the scarcest of the two. The domesticated animals and poultry will be noticed under another head. The great bustard appears to be almost the only species of bird that has been banished from the kingdom by the extension of enclosures and cultivation; although the bittern and two or three others have become scarcer, and have wholly deserted many of their ancient haunts, yet they may still be met with, whilst the former has wholly disappeared from its latest locality, the Wiltshire downs. Pennant, in 1777, notices bustards as occurring in flocks of 50 or more, on most of the open tracts of the S. and E. counties, from the Dorset downs to the Yorkshire wolds. Of those species which are either indigenous or habitual visiters, 20 are birds of prey; of gallinaceous birds (grouse, pigeons, &c.) there are 80 species; of insessores, or the tooth-billed tribe (shrikes, |