great number of islands, and that of King George III., on the N. W. coast of N. America, with the Aleutian Archipelago in Russian America. In Behring's sea, are the group of Pribylof and Nounivok, belonging to Russia. The Arctic Ocean presents a vast number of islands, the majority of which, previously to the late voyage of discovery, were regarded as parts of the American continent. Balbi proposes to give to these islands the general denomination of Arctic lands or Arctic archipelago, and to subdivide them as follows: E. or Danish Arctic lands, comprising the great group of Greenland and Iceland, belonging to Denmark, and Jan Mayen's Island, without stationary inhabitants; the W. or English Arctic lands, extending to the W. and N. of Baffin's and Hudson's bays, the principal groups of which are, N. Devon, N. Georgia, with the islands Cornwallis, Melville, &c.; and the archipelago of Baffin Parry, with the islands Cockburn, Southampton, New Galloway, &c. (See and Brazilian parras and boatbills.". We may add, with respect to N. America, that while but a very small portion of it is within the torrid zone, it reaches far within the Arctic circle, where it also attains to a great breadth. The N. W. wind prevails during winter. This wind, sweeping over a desolate country, overspread with marshes, forests, frozen lakes, and mountains, buried under eternal snows, contracts an intense degree of cold, and in its progress southward, passing over a wilderness, where the ground is shaded by forests from the solar rays, its original character is in no respect changed. It slowly yields to the dominion of the climate, and retains its temperature The Climate of America is nearly as celebrated for the predominance of cold, as that of Africa for the predominance of heat. With the exception of the limited space along its W. shore, between the Andes in the S., and the Maritime Alps in the N., the temperature of the New World, in the same latitude, is every where inferior to that of the old. Countries which, from their geographical position, we should suppose would be mild and temperate, are exposed to long and severe winters, during which they are wholly covered with snow; and in point of fact, the entire continent of N. America above the 50th degree of lat. is all but unin-long after it has penetrated into the regions of habitable. Even in the 45th parallel, on the N. side of the Canadian lakes, frost is continuous for more than six months. Occasional frosts occur as low down the Atlantic coast as the confines of Florida, near the 30th deg. of lat., in the parallel of Morocco, Cairo, and Suez. This predominance of cold is no doubt ascribable to a great variety of causes; among the most prominent of which may be placed the extraordinary elevation of the soil. Not only is the continent traversed from one extremity to the other by immense chains of mountains covered with perpetual snow, but in many parts, as in Mexico and Columbia, very extensive plains are found at an elevation of from 6,000 to 10,000 feet above the level of the sea! Thus the plain of Quito, immediately under the equator, has an elevation of above 9,600 feet, and its mean temperature is said not to exceed 53° Fahr. In some parts, where the plateaus rise rapidly, there is often, within a few leagues, an extraordinary change of temperature. At Vera Cruz and Guayaquil, for example, on the borders of the plains of Mexico and Quito, and nearly on a level with the sea, the heat is often quite oppressive. These different climates have different vegetable productions. "Hence the traveller journeying down the deep descent of one of these magnificent ravines (leading from the plateau of Mexico), through forests of birches, oaks, and pines, finds himself suddenly on the level shores of the Rio Alvarado, surrounded by palms, and has an opportunity of seeing the animal products of the N. and S. of the Alpine regions and tropics, nay of the E. and W. hemispheres, mingled together. Wolves of northern aspect dwelling in the vicinity of monkeys; humming birds returning periodically from the borders of the frozen zone, with the N. bunting and soft-feathered titmice, to nestle near parrots; and our common European whistling ducks and teal, swimming in lakes which swarm with sirens heat. Throughout N. America the N. wind G Το the American continent all the unmitigated in industrious undertakings, are the only obstarigour of the polar regions. The Andes and cles that hinder the American mines from yieldmaritime Alps protect the strip of territory being greater supplies at present than at any tween them and the Pacific Ocean from the former period. freezing influence of the N. W. wind; and to this its greater mildness is partly, at least, if not wholly, owing. Minerals. The mineral riches of America are probably superior to those of any of the other great divisions of the globe. The discovery of the mines of Mexico and Peru effected an entire revolution in the value of the precious metals; and they have since continued to be the grand sources whence supplies of gold and silver have principally been derived. The produce of the American mines at the commencement of the present century, was estimated by M. Humboldt as follows: Annual Produce of the Mines of America at the Commencement of the Nineteenth Century. Gold. Silver. Political divisions. Marcs of Castille. Marcs Value of both gold Jand silver Kilogs in dollars. Vice-royalty of ship of Chili Vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres Vice-royalty of New Grenada Brazil Totai 7,000 611,090 140,478 6,240,000 75,217 17,291 3,460,840 795,581 43,500,000. This sum of 43,500,000 dollars, at 4s. and 3d. a dollar, amounts to 9,243,7507. Exclusive of the mines, the gold and silver washings of Brazil, and other parts of S. America and of the U. States, are considerably productive. Besides gold and silver, most other metals are found in less or greater abundance in America. Chili and Cuba have some of the richest copper mines in the world; lead is found in different parts of the U. States, particularly in Illinois, and in Mexico, &c. ; iron is most abundant in the U. States, and in many other parts of the continent; salt also is very widely diffused; and coal, including anthracite, is found in vast deposits in different parts of the U. States, in British America, and in Chili. Europe may now be said to be wholly dependent on Brazil for supplies of diamonds, which seem to be more abundant there, than anywhere else. Vegetation.-Stretching, as America does, from the eternal snows of the Arctic to those of the Antarctic circle, and possessing soils of every elevation and quality, her vegetable products are necessarily of the most diversified description. 1,609 2,338,220 537,512 23,000,000 Owing to the prevalent humidity and coolness of the climate, and the richness of the soil, her forests and pastures are unrivalled for extent, luxuriance, and magnificence. The forests consist generally of very heavy timber, including many species of pines and larches unknown in Europe, with an endless variety of oaks, maples, cypresses, tulip trees, mahogany trees, logwood, BrazilNew for some of its most useful and widely difwood, &c. &c. The Old World is indebted to the fused vegetable productions. Potatoes, though probably not introduced into Europe for more than a century after the discovery of America, already form a most important part of the food of most European nations; and tobacco, though it aiso be of American origin, has been diffused from one extremity of the Öld World to the other, and is, perhaps, the most universally esteemed of all luxuries. We also owe to America maize, or Indian corn, millet, cocoa, vanilla, pimento, copaiba, cinchona or bark, so important in medicine, jalap, sassafras, nux vomica, &c. The Cactus cochinilifer, which furnishes the cochineal, is also peculiar to America. On the other hand, America is indebted to the Old World for a great variety of cereal grasses, trees, and fruits. At the head of the former may be placed wheat, barley, oats, and rice, all of which succeed admirably well in large portions of America. It seems pretty well established that the sugar-cane is indigenous to some of the W. Indian islands; but it is abundantly certain, not merely that the art of making sugar, but that the cane, now most generally cultivated in the islands and in continental America, was brought to them either from the E. Indies or from Madeira. America is also indebted to the Old World for the coffee-plant, now one of her staple products; and for oranges, lemons, peaches, and most descriptions of fruittrees. New York apples, though now very superior to any produced in this country, are derived from plants carried from England. vine has been raised in America; but either the soil or climate is not suitable for it, or, which is perhaps most probable, sufficient care has not been bestowed on the manufacture of the wine. The tea-plant has been tried in Brazil; but, owing to the dearness of labour, there is no chance of its being profitably cultivated there, or any where else in America. Mr. Jacob, author of the Historical Inquiry into the Consumption of the Precious Metals, estimated the annual average produce of the American mines, from 1800, to 1810 at 47,061,000 dollars. But the revolutionary struggles which began, in 1810, to disturb Peru, Mexico, and the rest of Spanish America, by causing the expulsion of most of the great capitalists, by whom the mines were principally carried on, speedily caused some of the most productive amongst them to be entirely abandoned, and occasioned an extraordinary falling off in the supply of the precious metals previously obtained from the New World. Mr. Jacob estimates the average annual produce of the American mines, from 1810 to 1829, at only 4,036,000l., being less considerably than half their produce at the beginning of the century; and though this estimate has been suspected of being somewhat undervalued, there are pretty good grounds for thinking that it is not far from accurate. (Jacob, ii. 267.) The failure of the companies formed in this country in 1825, for working the American mines, the instability of the revolutionary governments, and the continued anarchy and insecurity that has prevailed down to the present time in Mexico, and in all the old provinces of Spanish America, have hitherto prevented any very material additions being made to the supply of bullion from the American mines, which at this moment (1838) is certainly under 5,000,000l. The causes of this extraordinary decline being thus explained, it is plain that there are no grounds for supposing that it will be perpetual. It is believed, indeed, that some of the richest of the mines known to exist in Mexico have not yet been wrought; and it is more than probable that many mines will yet be discovered. The instability and weakness of the governments, and the consequent indisposition to embark capital The The Zoology of America differs in many im total extirpation in the more accessible parts of the country. The coypou, known in commerce by the name of neutra, and the chinchilla, are found in S. America. They yield a highly esteemed fur, and immense quantities of their skins are now imported. panther; but is inferior in size and ferocity to the Bengal tiger, with which it is generally compared. The Felis discolor, or puma, is found in both S. and N. America: though denominated the American lion, it is neither so large nor fierce as the jaguar. A number of bears, some of them of the largest and most formidable description, are found in Arctic America: two are peculiar to it. portant respects from that of the Old World. Of for, and high price of its fur, has led to a great about 1,350 mammals that have been described | diminution of its numbers, and to its nearly and classified, America possesses about 540; but, with few exceptions, she is singularly ill provided with the useful animals. As already stated, neither the horse, ox, sheep, nor hog, were found in America on her discovery by Columbus; and the want of them must, no doubt, have been a considerable obstacle to the advancement of the America has but few beasts of prey. The most natives in the career of civilisation. The ele- formidable, the Felis onca, or jaguar, is found only phant and the camel are also unknown in Ame-in S. America. It is larger and stronger than the rica; but she was not entirely destitute of useful animals. In Peru they had the llama, guanaco, paco, and vicunna, animals that bear a considerable resemblance to each other, if they be not of the same species. The first has a considerable analogy to the camel, though it be neither so large nor strong, and wants the hump. It was, and still is, employed to carry loads, and being docile and sure-footed, makes its way over the most dangerous paths. Its pace is slow, seldom exceed- Tropical America has a great variety of apes, ing 12 or 15 m. a day, and it usually carries about but none of them approach so nearly to the hu80 lbs. Its wool, or rather hair, which is gene-man form as the orang outang, or chimpanzee, rally, but not always, white, is spun and made into and none of them have the ferocity of the baarticles of clothing. The guanacos and pacos are boon. Many, however, have prehensile tails, ennot so serviceable as beasts of burden as the llamas, dowed with so great delicacy of touch that they and are comparatively little used. The vicunna, have been compared to the trunk of the elephant. the smallest of them all, inhabits the least acces- This fits them admirably for travelling from tree sible parts of the Andes; it is chiefly prized on account of its wool, which is of a very superior quality. The flesh of these animals, though dry and coarse, is used as food. They are almost the only animals that the native inhabitants of America had been able to subdue, and to render subservient to their purposes. The bison, or American ox (Bos americanus), the largest native quadruped of the New World, is principally found on the prairie lands of the Rocky Mountains in N. America. It is rarely, if ever, seen to the S. of the Mississippi; and it is doubtful whether it was ever found on the Atlantic coast. The Bos moschatus, or musk ox, is found only in the most N. parts of America to the W. of Hudson's Bay, from 66° to 73° N. lat. Its horns, which cover all the forehead, are often of great weight. The Rocky Mountain goat, remarkable for the fineness of its wool, inhabits the Rocky Mountains from Mexico to the extremity of the range. Several species of deer are found both in N. and S. America. The rein-deer is the most northerly ruminating animal, being found in Greenland and the remotest of the Arctic islands. On the W. coast it descends as low as the Co-tures, falcons, and other birds of prey. A species lombia river. America possesses several peculiar species of the genus Canis, or dog. The physiognomy of the American wolf, when contrasted with that of its European namesake, is very distinct. There is a great variety of foxes. The fur of the Canis lagopus, or arctic fox, and of some other varieties of the same genus, is of considerable value. The best known variety of the American dog is the Canis familiaris, found in Newfoundland. This animal is now very common in England, and is deservedly a great favourite. It is strong and active, has long fine glossy hair, a curved bushy tail, and webbed toes, by means of which it swims admirably well. The colour of the back and sides is generally black, with a white belly and legs, and frequently a white spot at the tip of the tail. It is naturally fitted, by its thick covering of hair, for a cold climate, and is more active and in better health in this country in winter than in summer. The beaver (Castor) is more abundant perhaps in the N. W. parts of N. America than in any other part of the world. But the great demand to tree. The vampyre bat, frequent in S. America, is very dangerous. It attacks the larger animals, and even man himself, when asleep; and as its bite is not sufficiently painful to awaken the victim, the bleeding it occasions sometimes proves fatal. America is infested by an immense number of reptiles. Of these pests the rattle-snake is one of the most common, and also the most dangerous but there are others little less venomous. The true boa constrictor is found of an enormous size in the marshes and swamps of tropical America. Centipeds, sometimes a yard in length, with enormous spiders, scorpions, &c., abound in these regions. According to Humboldt, the white ants and termites are even more destructive here than their congeners in the Old World. The birds of America are exceedingly numerous. The condor, which inhabits the most inaccessible parts of the Andes, though of less dimensions than was formerly supposed, is the largest and most powerful of all the feathered tribes. There are also a great many eagles, vul of ostrich, but smaller than the African, inhabits the Pampas; and the woods of both Americas are the resort of vast flocks of wild turkeys, pigeons, &c. The waters of America are well supplied with fish; and the rivers in the tropical regions produce also enormous lizards and alligators. In the lakes of the Caraccas is found the electric eel. Nothing, however, is so worthy of remark, in relation to the zoology of America, as the wonderful increase of the horses and cattle carried there from Europe. Had we not been fully aware of all the circumstances in regard to their immigration, it would certainly have been supposed that they were indigenous to America, and that it, in fact, was their native country They here rove about in immense herds in a state of pristine freedom; and so numerous have they become that the slaughter of oxen, not for the carcass, but merely for the hide, is the principal business of many extensive provinces. PAMPAS.) In a single year above 800,000 hides have been exported from Brazil only, exclusive (See of those exported from Buenos Ayres, Monte- | polar regions of the N., and the tall Patagonians video, and other ports! In consequence, too, of towards the S., extremity of the continent. The the extraordinary increase of horses, the mode of first of these differ in no respect, as far as physical existence of the natives in several parts has been form is concerned, from the people of the same wholly changed; they have become expert horse-name in Asia and Europe. The Patagonians or men, and pass a considerable part of their time Puelches, inhabiting the S. E. coast of the on horseback, approaching in this respect to the southern extremity of America, may be conTartars and Arabs of the ancient world. Sheep sidered, after rejecting the exaggerations of early, have not succeeded so well in America as cattle and the contradictions of later travellers, as the and horses; and their wool, in most parts, is tallest people in the world. If with us the megenerally of an inferior description. dium height of the male sex may be estimated at Races of Men. The native inhabitants of 5 feet 8 inches, that of the Patagonians may be America difter in physical form, in language, taken at six feet. Other races, remarkable for their and perhaps in intellectual character, from every great stature, also exist among the Americans; other variety of the human race. Probably, as the Caribees and Cherokees. But there are however, the general agreement which exists also races remarkable for their shortness, as the among themselves is even more remarkable than Peruvians, who are between the mean European their disagreement from other races. The Red standard and the Chaymas, whose average height, men, as the Americans call themselves, in con- according to Humboldt, is five feet two inches, tradistinction to the European and African races, which makes them a full inch shorter than the (that is, to the Whites and Blacks, the only two Malayan_race, yet much taller than the Esquithey have any knowledge of,) exhibit surprisingly maux. Upon the whole, it may be remarked little difference, although extending over 70 that the American race exhibits a wider differon the N. side, and 54° on the S. side, of the ence in stature than any other family of mankind, equator. Heat or cold, drought or moisture, while this difference, at the same time, would not elevation or depression of surface, have certainly seem to be productive of any essential variation in no effect in the production, even of the small physical or intellectual capacity. In point of variations occasionally discoverable among them. colour there exists also considerable variety; The Indians of New Spain," says Humboldt, the brownish-red tinge for the most part pre"bear a close resemblance to those who inhabit vails; but in some cases its intensity approaches Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil. Over to black, and in others to the fairness of a 1,500,000 sq. leagues, from Cape Horn to the southern European. The probability is, after St. Laurence and Behring's Straits, we are struck all, that the number of distinct races of men at the first glance with the general resemblance in in America is at least as great as in other porthe features of the inhabitants. We think we per- tions of the world, although their smaller numceive them all to be descended from the same stock, bers, and obscurity of the tribes make it more notwithstanding the prodigious diversity of their difficult to distinguish and class them. In this languages. In the portrait drawn by Volney of matter, languages, so useful a guide in Europe the Canadian Indians, we recognise the tribes and Asia, have not, in America, on account of scattered over the savannahs of the Apure and their multiplicity and intricacy, afforded as yet the Carony. The same style of features exists much assistance. The exceeding, and perhaps in both Americas." The general physical form insurmountable difficulty of this branch of the is as follows:- Skin dark, having more or less of inquiry may, indeed, be judged of when it is a red tinge, usually called copper-colour, but known that the number of distinct languages thought to be more correctly characterised by spoken by men whose numbers are not supposed that of cinnamon; hair of the head black, coarse, to exceed 10,000,000 has been reckoned at no less lank, shining, long, but not very abundant: than 438, and their dialects at 2,000! The inhair on other parts of the body very deficient. tellectual powers of the American family, must, The beard is seldom altogether wanting, but it at first view at least, be considered as ranking it is so uniformly scanty, as often to present the below all the other principal races of mankind. appearance of its being so. Forehead long; eyes The Americans, when left undisturbed to the deep sunk, small, and black. Face broad across exercise of their native energies, had not tamed the cheeks, which are round and prominent; any of the useful animals, whether for food or nose well raised, and round at the apex; mouth labour, the llama and vicunna by one tribe exlarge, and lips thick; chest high, thighs massy, cepted. The Peruvians used gold, found in its legs arched, feet large, hands and wrists small. native state, and they appear, also, to have been The height is nearly the mean stature of the able to smelt and harden copper- -the utmost European race, but the body is usually more stretch of their ingenuity; but they knew nosquat and thick set. The countenance is hard-thing of the use of iron. The agriculture of the favoured, and the look stern, yet with a certain sweetness in the expression of the mouth which is a contrast to the rest of the features. It will appear, from this statement, that the races which the American most nearly resembles, are the Mongul, Malayan, and Indo-Chinese. The features of the face are, however, more amply chiselled than in any of these; the frontal bone is more flattened than in any of them, and the stature is greater than it is, at least, in the Malayan race. Although in the tropical regions of America there are no black men, as in Africa or Asia, nor in its temperate regions, any whites, as in Europe, still varieties do exist in an inferior degree; which may be compared to those which exist among Europeans, and among Negroes. The most striking of these are found in the short, squat, and tallow-coloured Esquimaux, about the They had in most civilised of the American tribes was of a tious to them: she had denied them nearly all the domestic animals which have conduced materially to the civilisation of the inhabitants of the Old World; as the horse, ass, ox, camel, sheep, goat, hog, and most of our domestic poultry. But their want of ingenuity is sufficiently shown by their not availing themselves of such as they possessed; as the rein-deer, goose, duck, turkey, and other poultry, soon domesticated by the European settlers. For their want of ingenuity in not discovering the art of smelting iron, no plea can be shown; and, indeed, it might rationally be supposed that the paucity of useful animals for domestication would rather have had the effect of directing and concentrating their efforts in other quarters. Mere handfuls of Europeans, in comparatively rude ages, subdued the most numerous and warlike tribes of America, and these handfuls have now grown into the majority of the population. by the Spaniards, annually to offer up thousands of human victims on the altars of their gods! Even the Peruvians, the least sanguinary of all the Americans, though Sabians, or worshippers of the heavenly bodies, did not scruple, on the death of their monarchs, to immolate hundreds of human victims on their tombs ! "From the moment," says an able writer, "that the Europeans landed in the New World, benevolence has been at work to instruct some portions of these tribes in religion and the arts. and flattering accounts have been published from time to time of the success of those humane persons who dedicated their lives to the task. But, after three centuries of incessant exertion, what is the result? Is there one tribe that exhibits the steady industry, the provident habits, the spirit of improvement, and the rational views of religion, which are to be found in any parish of England? We cannot find that there is. Many tribes, living near the whites, have adopted their habits and ideas to a certain extent, but merely under the influence of imitation. While missionaries and teachers are among them, every thing wears a favourable aspect; but their civiThe moral character of the native Americans lisation is never self-sustained. It is created by has been depicted under very different colours; the agency of men of higher natural endowments, but there can, we apprehend, be very little doubt and when they are removed it moulders away, that the bad features in it very decidedly pre- because it has no foundation in their character. dominate. Their capacity of enduring hardships Many parties of Indians, remnants of tribes once and privations of all sorts, and even the most ex- powerful, have lived peaceably, on reserves of cruciating tortures without murmur or com- land, inclosed amidst the population of the plaint, is well known; and is owing as much, United States, for more than a century. No siperhaps, to physical causes, as to the training they tuation can be imagined better fitted to promote undergo. They cannot be accused of ingratitude, their improvement; but in no one instance, so or of a want of hospitality, but they are in the far as we know, have they melted into the mass last degree vindictive, cruel, and treacherous. of the white population, or risen to any thing near When not engaged in war, or hunting, or drink- their level in knowledge and the useful arts. ing, they sink into a state of torpor and apathy They live in huts in no material degree better from which nothing can rouse them. They have than the wigwams of their wandering brethren. all, or mostly all, an irrepressible rage for They are generally honest, but drunken, inspirituous liquors; to obtain which they will sa- dolent, and ignorant, though teachers and miscrifice every thing, and which has been too readily sionaries are employed by the government to ministered to by Europeans. The state in which instruct them. Basket-making is almost the we find women may generally be taken as only trade they ply, and in their habits and pretty indicative of the character of a people character they may be aptly compared to the and tried by this test, the American Indians will gypsies of Europe who exist in the midst of civibe found to be almost at the bottom of the scale lisation, without partaking of its spirit or its of civilisation. From the one end of the con- benefits. It should be observed that there is not tinent to the other, woman, with very few ex- the same reluctance in the whites to mingle their ceptions, is a slave; she has to perform all the blood with the red men as with the blacks. laborious occupations of the tribe, and is, in fact, Much has been recently said of the progress degraded almost to the level of a beast of burden. made by the Cherokees; but we suspect that what Polygamy is very generally practised; and it is is witnessed there is but a flimsy veil of improveonly in some rare cases that chastity is held in ment, spread over habits which are essentially any estimation. Their religion is a rude species savage. We are convinced, in short, that the of idolatry or féticism. Cannibalism has un- Indian is truly the man of the woods; and that, doubtedly prevailed over the whole continent; like the wild animals he lives upon, he is destined and is not yet entirely extinct. The Mexicana, to disappear before the advancing tide of civilithe most advanced of the native nations, delighted sation, which falls upon him like a blight, in blood, and were accustomed, when invaded ❘ because it supplies new food to nourish his vices, The natural inferiority of the native Americans, and their incapacity to attain to any thing like real civilisation, are strikingly evinced by the result of the continued efforts of the Jesuits in Paraguay for their improvement. So long as the Jesuits resided among them, and could direct their efforts, and compel them to be industrious, all went on very well, and the golden age seemed to be restored. But the entire system was forced and factitious. The moment the Jesuits withdrew, the fabric that had cost them so much pains and labour to raise, fell to pieces. Civilisation had taken no real root among the Of the origin of the American race we are Americans; and they relapsed forthwith into the totally ignorant. Neither the evidence of phy-indolence, improvidence, and idolatry, that seem sical form nor of arbitrary customs and insti- natural to the race. tutions, which could spring only from a common source, or the testimony of language, connect them with any other race of men. The testimony of language on this subject is particuJarly clear. For example, incontestable evidence of a connection exists among the great majority of those insular languages which extend over at least 60° of latitude, and between Madagascar and Easter Island, over 200° of longitude; but the moment we quit the last named island, which is but 45° from the coast of America, all further trace of a Polynesian language ceases. We are not, indeed, unaware that the comparison of a great number of American with a great number of Asiatic lanuages has exhibited a small number of resemblances; but these we are disposed to consider as forced, fanciful, or accidental. : |