(α) In verbs beginning with yr and γλ; as

Obs. Verbs beginning with βλ- adopt both forms; thus from βλαστάνω we have the perf. act. ἐβλάστηκα (Eurip. Iph. Α. 574) and the pluperf. ἐβεβλαστήκει (Thucyd. III. 36). Only βλάπτω and βλασφημέω make their perfects regularly by reduplication, namely, βέβλαφα and βεβλασφήμηκα ; but the metathesis of the liquid gives us this form in βέβληκα from βάλλω.

(b) In verbs beginning with p- or a double consonant, or two consonants which are not a mute followed by a liquid; thus we have

Obs. There is a regular reduplication in some few verbs of this kind. Thus, of the verbs beginning with ῥ-, ῥυπόω makes its perf. pass. part. ῥερυπωμένος (Hom. Od. vi. 59); and this is a solitary example in classical Greek, though the later authors sometimes deviate from the rule (see Lobeck, Paralip. p. 13). The verbs κτάομαι, μιμνήσκω, πετάννυμι and πίπτω give us the reduplicated perfects κέκτημαι, μέμνημαι, πέπταμαι and πέπτωκα. But Plato and other good authors write ἔκτημαι for the frst, and the last three were originally μιμένημαι, πιπέταμαι, πεπέτωκα,

(2) The temporal (αὔξησις χρονική) or quantitative augment is merely an ectasis of the initial syllable, in verbs which begin with a mutable vowel. This augment takes the place of reduplication in the perfect of such verbs, and is then retained throughout the moods. The augment in elmov is considered as a reduplication, and hence we have εἰπέ, εἴπω, εἴποιμι, εἰπεῖν, εἰπών.

As a general rule, a or e is changed into η, ο into w, at into m, αν or ev into ην, οι into ῳ, t into i, and ϋ into

Thus we have pl. p. ἠνύκειν

Obs. 1 The diphthong ει is occasionally augmented in εικάζω, which makes in Attic ᾔκαζον, ᾔκασα, ᾔκασμαι, &c., by the side of the ordinary εἴκαζον, εἴκασα, είκασμαι, &c. The plup. ᾔδειν from οἶδα is regularly augmented.

Obs. 2 There are ten verbs which change e into « in the augmented tenses. They are ἐάω, ἐθίζω with its perfect είωθα, ἑλίσσω, ἕλκω, ἑλ(αἱρέω, aor. εἷλον), ἔπομαι, ἐργάζομαι, ἕρπω and ἑρπύζω, ἑστιάω, ἔχω. Το these must be added the aorist eloa from (w.

Obs: 3 If the verb begins with a- followed by a vowel, the temporal augment is not but a; thus we have ato, imperf. aïov. To this rule again there is an exception in the verbs ἀείδω, αΐσσω, ἀϋτέω, which substitute η for a in the augmented tenses.

Obs. 4 The temporal augment cannot be expressed when the verb begins with the long vowels 7, w, ov, i and v, but the long a passes like the short & into η; thus we have ἆθλέω, ἤθλησα.

Obs. 5 In some few instances, euphony forbids syllabic augmentation; as in αὐαίνω, οἰακίζω, οἰκουρέω, οἰνίζω, οἰστράω ; though we have ηὐαινόμην in Aristoph. Fragm. 514. This omission of the augment is limited to cases where the vowel following av or or belongs to the root; in such words as οἴομαι, imperf. ᾠόμην, ᾤμην, the o is the vowel of connexion.

Obs. 6 Six verbs, which originally began with the digamma, have a syllabic augment instead of the temporal; they are

Of these however wéw sometimes omits the augment in compounds, as

1 The doctrine of the old grammarians that ev- takes no augment is not accepted by modern scholars. See Elmsley ad Med. 191; Heracl. 305; Dindorf ad Nub. 137; Lobeck, Phryn. p. 140. But there can be little doubt that εὗρον, εύρηκα are the commonest forms, and it is difficult to conceive that nu could have been a diphthong distinct in pronunciation from ev. See above, 22.

διωθοῦντο, Thucyd. II. 84; ἁλίσκομαι and ἁνδάνω form the imperfects regularly, as ἡλισκόμην, ἤνδανον. We have a similar analogy in ἔοικα, ἔολπα and ἔοργα.

Obs. 7 The following verbs combine both the temporal and syllabic augments:

To this class belong the pluperfects of the three verbs mentioned in the last observation, namely, ἐῴκειν from ἔοικα, ἐλπειν from ἔολπα, and ἐώργειν from ἔοργα.

(2) Reduplication.

306 Reduplication is found (a) in the present and imperfect of the first three conjugations of verbs in -μι (class A), and in some few consonantal verbs, as πίπτω for πιπέτω, μίμνω for μιμένω, μιμνήσκω for μιμενήσκω, γιγνώσκω for γιγινώσκω, &c. In these cases the vowel of the reduplicated syllable is . In ἵστημι for σίστημι (Lat. sisto) there is the usual substitution of the aspirate for the initial σ (above, 114). Aspirated initials of the root are represented in the syllable of reduplication by the corresponding tenuis (above, 98).

(6) It appears also in the perfect and pluperfect of verbs beginning with a single consonant (excepting always p) or with a mute followed by a liquid, the vowel of the reduplicated syllable being the lightest e, in consequence of the weight of the form, and the aspirated initials being changed into tenues as in the reduplication of the present and imperfect, thus:

Obs

γράφω

Three verbs beginning with A- take the quasi-augment a instead of the reduplication; these are

In these three, however, there are occasional appearances of the regular form ; thus we have λε-λημμένης (Æsch. Αg. 876), λε-λήμμεθα (Eurip. Ion, 1132), λε-λεγμένου (Æsch. Sept. c. Theb. 426), ξυλ-λε-λεγμένας (Arist. Eccl. 58). The perfects εἴρηκα and εἵ-μαρται from roots beginning with ep- or pe- and μ- follow this analogy.

ρε

307 There is an occasional reduplication in Attic Greek even in the case of verbs beginning with a-, e- or o-. Here the first consonant of the root is repeated with the vowel, which is lengthened in the second syllable in order perhaps to give the proper weight to the root, the penultima being generally shortened. Thus we have

Obs. There is also a reduplicated aorist y-ayov (from ayw), where the first syllable is augmented.

(3) Augment and Reduplication in Compound Verbs.

308 (α) In parathetic or separable compounds of preposition and verb, the augment or reduplication stands between the preposition and the verb: as in

Obs. 1 It will be seen from this that assimilations are resolved, that final vowels suffer elision (except in the case of περί, above, 139), and that pó makes a crasis with the augment (except in some few cases, such as προεώρων, προεῖχον, προέσχον).

Obs. 2 Many verbs derived from nouns compounded with a preposition treat the preposition as still separable, and are augmented between it and the verb; thus we have

In the same way the following verbs take the augment after the preposition, though they are all derivative and secondary: ἐγχειρέω, ἐμφανίζω, ἐκκλησιάζω, ἐνεδρεύω, ἐμπερπερεύω, ἐπιτηδεύω, ἀπολογέομαι, προξενέω, συνεργέω, υποπτεύω, &c. So also certain verbs of which the simple forms are rarely, if ever, used; such as ἀφικνέομαι, ἀπαντάω, ἐξετάζω, ἀποδιδράσκω, ἀπολαύω. For παρανομέω and ἀπολαύω we find the irregular forms παρηνόμουν, ἀπήλαυον, which, however, seem to be erroneous. From ἐγγυάω we have both ἠγγύων, ἠγγύησα, and ἐνεγύων, ἐνεγύησα, and even ἐνεγγύων, ἐνεγγύησα, in accordance with which are formed the perfects ἐγγεγύηκα, ἐγγεγύημαι.

Obs. 3 On the other hand, several verbs which are really parathetic compounds, but have become in common discourse inseparable, are treated as simple words, and take the augment before the whole compound; thus we have

Obs. 4 This is properly the case with a number of verbs of the class mentioned in Obs. 2; such as

But of these the first sometimes takes a double augment (below, Obs. 5).

Obs. 5 Some verbs compounded with prepositions take a double augment, one before and the other after the preposition; thus we have