§ V. Syllables.

29 A syllable (ovλaßn) is simple when it consists of a single vowel with or without a breathing. It is compound when it consists of a vowel or diphthong with one or more consonants. A word (Mégis) consists of one or more syllables. No syllable or monosyllabic word contains more than six or seven consonants, as in στράγξ.

30 In regard to words of more than one syllable, the following rules apply to the division of the syllables 1:

a. A solitary consonant, whether single or double, between two vowels, properly belongs to the second of them: as in e-xel, σῶμα, ί-κα-νόν, ὕψη-λος.

B. Two consonants are divided between the syllables which precede and follow, except in the case of a tenuis or aspirated mute followed by any liquid, or a medial mute followed by p, when, as the articulation is not divided, the compound sound passes on to the following vowel; thus we divide words as follows: ȧ-πρɩɣ-dó-πλŋêτα, ἐ-μασ-χα-λίσ-θη, βα-ρυ-βρό-μος, ἔβ-λα-ψε. For the application of this rule to the quantity of syllables, see below, 36, 37.

7. The first of three consonants belongs to the syllable which precedes; thus we divide as follows: ἐσθλός, ἐχθρός, ὀμ-πνή, μάκτρα, &c.

31 Etymology sometimes interferes with this rule respecting the division of syllables. In regard to the roots of verbs, the vocalization will often show that one or more consonants have been thrown back upon the root syllable. Thus a comparison of σтpépw and πέμπω with their perfects ἔστροφα, πέπομφα, will show us that the first syllable of the present must be στρεφ-, πεμπ-, and the second syllable of the perfect σ7pо-, поμ- (above, 20). For the same reason, compound words are divided according to their constituent parts: as in κυνὸς-οὐρά, ἐκτίθημι.

1 It is proper to observe that these are not the rules given by other grammarians. The German scholars in particular lay it down that only the liquids, and the first of two doubled letters, can be tolerated at the end of a syllable, and that all combinations of letters which can begin a word must begin a syllable with rare exceptions.

32 By a special rule the converse is made to apply to compounds with eis, ἐξ, πρός, δυσ-, which carry on their final sibilant to the next syllable when it begins with a vowel: thus they divided ẻ-§άyew, dv-σápeσtos (Anecd. Bekk. p. 1128). But the correctness of this rule may be doubted.

§ VI. Prosody, or the Quantity and Accentuation of Syllables.

33 Prosody (poowdía) teaches, besides the breathings (above, 24), the quantity of syllables, or the time (xpóvos) occupied in their utterance, and the accentuation of syllables, or the tone (Tóvos) with which they are pronounced.

34 The shortest time in which a syllable can be pronounced is called a mora, or single time. A short syllable has one mora: a long syllable contains two mora.

35 The quantity of syllables is determined either by the nature of the vowel, or by that of the consonants which follow: in the former case the quantity is said to depend on the nature of the vowel; in the latter, on the position of the consonants.

36 A Syllable is long by nature, when it contains a long vowel or diphthong; by position, when it is followed by a composite consonant-5, §, or —or by two or more consonants in which the articulation is divided (above, 30, ß).

Obs. The lengthening of short syllables by position applies not only to the concurrence of syllables in a word, but also to the case of two contiguous words in a metrical line. The position invariably produces a long syllable (a) when the former word ends and the latter word begins with a consonant; (b) when the former word ends with a short vowel and the latter begins with a composite consonant, with a consonant preceded by σ, or one of those combinations, which inevitably make a vowel long by position in the middle of a word. In the case of a mute followed by a liquid the preceding short vowel generally becomes long if the ictus or emphasis of the metre falls upon it, and this applies also to the initial p, which is doubled in the concurrence of syllables (below, 105). In Epic poetry the position is sometimes neglected before such words as ZákuvvŌos, Ζέλεια, Σκάμανδρος, σκέπαρνον, &c., and it has been proposed by Payne Knight (Prol. Hom. p. 79) to write Δάκυνθος, Δέλεια, Κάμανδρος, κέπαρνον in these cases, a change supported by philological considerations, and by the reading ouxi pápaydov in Asclep. VII. 1 (see below, 116).

1

37 A Syllable is short when it contains a short vowel, and is followed by a single consonant, or by two consonants, in which the articulation is not divided (above, 30, B).

Practically we find that while a short vowel is almost always short before

πρ, κρ, τρ: φρ, χρ, θρ: βρ, γρ, δρ,

generally short before

πλ, κλ, τλ: φλ, χλ, θλ: πν, κν: χν, θυ: τμ:

rarely short before

βλ, γλ: γμ, γν: δμ, δν, μν:

all of which may begin a word; a short vowel may retain its quantity in the same word before xp, xu, Op, TV, pv, which cannot begin a word. This is simply the result of more or less facility of articulation.

Obs. This rule applies only to Attic Greek, and here also we have exceptions. Thus on the one hand we find: os aïde zāτpós (Eurip. Electr. 1005); and on the other hand we have: eiva Bißλov dè κáρжоs où vika σráɣuv (Esch. Suppl. 742). It is to be remarked that in parathetic compounds the mute followed by a liquid always makes the vowel long by position; thus we have always ēk-λéλoñα (Eurip. Herc. F. 230), EK-ATV (Iph. T. 750), and the like. In Epic Greek we generally find a short vowel made long before the mute and liquid, and the vowel retains its quantity only in those cases in which a metrical exigency arises, especially when any mute except y is followed by p, and before the combined sounds κλ, πλ, τλ and χλ.

38 The natural quantity of the vowels e, o, is distinguished by a difference of characters: for e, o, are always short; 7, w, always long by nature.

39 The quantity of a, i, v is determined by etymology, and learned by experience. When they involve an absorption or contraction, they are necessarily long; when they represent a mere residuum of articulation they are necessarily short. Thus the cases οἱ λαμπάδα for λαμπάδον, οἱ δαίμοσι for δαίμον-σι, οι σωζοίατο for owlowτo, &c., show that may be omitted without compensation beyond that of the short vowel à; whereas the cases of eis for ev-s, of ὀδούς for ὀδόντες, οἱ δαίμων for δαίμονες, οι τύψας for TÚAVT-s, &c., show that an absorbed v may be represented by a long vowel or diphthong. An observation of these contradictory phenomena enables us to form some general rules. On the one hand we know that in all words in which a stands for v or VT that

דע

vowel is short; this applies to all neuters plural and words like déka, where we know from etymology that the combination T is absolutely omitted, and to all uncontracted accusatives singular in -a, for these have dropt their final v. On the other hand we know from this that while accusatives plural in -ă-s from accusatives singular in -ă are necessarily short, those in -as from accusatives singular in -av, are necessarily long; for as odoús = ódóvt-s_is_to τύψας = τύψαντες, so is λόγους = λόγονς to μούσας = μούσαν-ς. The accent often indicates the quantity, according to the following general rules:

(a) Every doubtful vowel, when circumflexed, is long by nature; as λάας, ἶσος, θύμα.

(b) Every doubtful vowel at the end of a word is short, if the penultima is circumflexed, or if the antepenultima has the acute accent; as χώμα, βασίλεια, δίωξις, πέλεκυς.

(c) Every doubtful vowel in the penultima is short, when it has the acute accent, if the final syllable is also short; as Toλăκις, τίσις, κλύσις.

An accurate knowledge of the quantity of syllables involving a, i, or v must be gained by study and observation. For reference, it may be convenient to append the following synopsis of the facts, which is mainly derived from Rost. It enumerates successively the cases in which these vowels are used long in the different syllables of words :

(1) Long a in Greek words.

A. Long a in the final syllable.

The terminations, whose quantity is here to be determined, are -a, -av, -ap, and -as.

1

I. The termination -ā.

The quantity of a in the nominative of the first declension, is often regulated by etymological considerations, and is fully examined in its proper place (below, 162).

2 In the remaining cases of the first declension which end with -a, the a is long in the Doric genitive termination (below, 165, ); also in the dative sing. in -a, and in the nom. and accus. dual. The quantity of the vocative is regulated by that of the nominative; but in words whose nom. ends with -as or -ns, a in the vocative is short (below, 165, a).