tion to complete it. The anomalies of signification, which have been briefly mentioned above (336-350), show that even after the transitive use had become the common and established signification, there was a tendency to fall back on the neuter or independent construction. Thus in common Greek exw means "I have or hold forth" something, which is expressed in the accusative case. But in the established idiom this verb, with an adverb in -ws, means "to have, hold forth, or exhibit oneself in a certain manner," just as in English the same kind of verb passes to a different application; for "to hold forth" is used absolutely for "to speak in public." And there is of course no reason why exw, "I am in possession, or I hold forth and exhibit," should not have been originally a complete and independent predication. The true theory of syntax, according to which every oblique case represents an adverbial or secondary predication, renders it necessary to consider every verb even of the active form as having been originally neuter or independent.

(aa) It will generally be found that the difference between a transitive and intransitive verb, whether the form be active or passive, consists in the nature of the secondary predication, which is expressed by the accusative case, when this case is added. For while the transitive verb may be accompanied by an accusative expressing either the secondary predicate of manner (which is in the category of quality) or the secondary predicate of the object (which is in the category of quantity), the intransitive verb is limited to the former, which may, however, be added whenever it is required. Thus in the phrase ἐστεφάνουν ἐμὲ εὐαγγέλια (Arist. Eq. 654), "they crowned me for the good news," the object of the action is expressed by èué, and the manner of the action by evayyéλia, "in the way of good news.” But in ἐκδήμους στρατείας ἐξῄεσαν (Thucyd. I. 15), "they went out on foreign expeditions," the accusative merely denotes the manner of going out, and being of cognate signification with the verb, and often expressed by a word containing the same root, this use of the accusative is called the figura etymologica.

(bb) A number of verbs, which, according to their ordinary signification, are intransitives, are used in certain senses with an accusative of the object or quantity, and this shows how the more uniformly transitive verbs have assumed their present signification

and usage. Thus, not to speak of the accusatives of extension and duration (below, 462, 463), many neuter verbs take an accusative of the object, by passing on to a secondary meaning, which is implied in, or inferred from, their strict and ordinary use. Thus, égioτaodai in itself means "to stand out of" something, and therefore takes the genitive with or without a repeated preposition, as ἐκστὰς τῆς ὀρθῆς Kaì diкaías ódoû (Dem. de Cor. p.230,3), “having left the right and just road;” or, ἐξ ἕδρας σοὶ πλόκαμος ἐξέστηχ ̓ ὅδε (Eurip. Bacch. 928), "this lock has got out of its place for you." In a secondary and inferential meaning étioraoba signifies "to avoid," i.e. to stand out of the way of something; and in this sense it is followed by the accusative of the person or thing avoided; as opovoûvтa yáp viv oùк av étéστην ŏкv (Soph. Ajax, 82), "if he were in his senses, I should not avoid him through fear;” and, οὐδένα πώποτε κίνδυνον úπèρ dó§ns ¿§éστn (Demosth. in Androt. p. 617, 15), “it [the people of Athens, & Snμos] has never yet shrunk from any danger in the pursuit of glory." Similarly payéw, "I am cold," which expresses a state frequently consequent on terror, is used in the transitive sense, "I fear;" thus, on the one hand, we have ai dè πaρlévoi piynσav ws KоVσаv (Soph. Ed. Col. 1607), "the virgins shuddered (with fear), when they heard;" and, on the other hand, ovtoi è̟ywv ěppiya μáxηv ovdè Kтúπоν iππшν (Ноm. П. xvI. 175), "assuredly I do not fear battle or the tramp of steeds." The neuter verb πηδάω, "to jump or bound," not only takes the accusative of cognate signification (figura etymologica), as πηdâv týdnμa, “to leap a leap” (Eurip. Androm. 1140, Orest. 263), or πηdâv Xainpá (Eurip. Ion, 717), "to take light leaps;" πηdâv μeíčova (Soph. Ed. T. 1300), "to take greater bounds," i. e. with nonμara understood, but is even used in the directly transitive sense, "to traverse with bounds," in Soph. Aj. 30:

αὐτὸν εἰσιδων μόνον

πηδῶντα πεδία,

"having seen him alone bounding over the plains." So also ópμaíva, "I am deeply agitated," of the sea, in its secondary sense, ὁρμαίνω, "I ponder deeply" (Pind. Ol. XIII. 84), may take an accusative, as in Pind. Ol. VIII. 41: ȧvтlov ópμaívwv тépas, “pondering on the adverse portent."

(cc) The transitive use of verbs of the active inflexion belongs more properly to the different employments of the accusative case.

It may however be convenient to place before the student a list of the verbs, which, though usually transitive, may be employed idiomatically in a neuter or independent predication.

*ΑΓΩ, (α) “I am a leader,” “ I lead on,” as ἄγειν ἐπὶ φάλαγγος (Xen. Cyrop. 1. 6, § 19); (b) ärɣew Kai pépew, "to plunder," sometimes with an accusative of the country (Xen. Hell. 111. 2, § 2); also as common transitive verbs, but in the inverted order, and in the sense "to carry off" (Xen. Cyrop. III. 3, § 2; Plato, Phædr. 279 c; Legg. VII. 817 A).

In the imperative aye, ayere are interjectional: "come on!" or "well then." And the compounds άπay' èкπodáv, üπaye signify 'get out of the way." Similarly ȧváyew means "to withdraw" (Xen. Cyr. VII. 1, § 45); áváyew èπì πóda (Arist. Av. 383), "to retreat facing the enemy;" avάyew, i. e. vaûv, “to weigh anchor or put out to sea" (Herod. III. 41). And diάyew, i. e. Bíov (Herod. I. 94), means "to live."

AIPO, “I lift," means (a) "to be up and off;" as in the imper. alp' eis kóракaя, "be off to the crows;" (b) "to rise," of the sun, as Soph. Phil. 1315:

ὡς ἂν αὐτὸς ἥλιος

ταύτῃ μὲν αἴρῃ τῇδ ̓ αὖ δύνῃ πάλιν.

(c) ἆραι τῷ στρατῷ, ταῖς ναυσί, “ to start, to set sail,” also ἀπαίρειν, as ἀπαίρειν ἀπὸ Σαλαμῖνος (Herod. VIII. 57). (α) ανταίρειν, "to rise up in opposition," as in Dem. Phil. II. p. 66, 24: μéyelos δυνάμεως πρὸς ἣν οὐδ ̓ ἀντᾶραι δυνησόμεθα.

ΑΠΑΓΟΡΕΥΩ, ΑΠΕΙΠΟΝ, ΑΠΕΙΡΗΚΑ, “ I forbid" or "say no," "I give in," "I cry out that I have had enough," like the Latin fatiscor, fessus, compared with fateor; thus, où yáp πov ἀπεροῦμέν πω ; ἥκιστα ἐάν περ μὴ σύ γε ἀπαγορεύσῃς (Plat. Theaetet. 200 D), "we will not give in yet. By no means, unless you cry off first;" aπεîπov aλye (Eurip. Hec. 930), "I gave in, fainted, through sorrow."

ΑΡΜΟΖΩ, ΣΥΝΑΡΜΟΤΤΩ, “I adapt or accommodate,” means "I am fitted or adapted;" as Oúpn§ pμoσev avτô (Hom. Il. III. 333), "the corslet fitted him;" σvvapμóтToVOLV ÅXXýλOIS П. (Plat. Protag. 333 A), "they harmonize with one another."

'ANKEN, "I work upon or practise," means "I endeavour,"

as in Soph. Electr. 1024: aσkel Tolaútη kaì di aiŵôvos péveiv, “endeavour to continue such also throughout your life."

BAAAQ, "I throw," has an intransitive meaning in several of its compounds, as ἐμβάλλειν, εἰσβάλλειν, “ to attack;” προσβάλ New, "to assault," with the dative; vπeρßáλλew, “to go beyond;" éπißáλew, "to go straight towards," "to attack," with the dative; and in the impersonal usages ἐπιβάλλει μοί τι, “ something comes to my share,” whence τὸ ἐπίβαλλον ἐφ' ἡμᾶς μέρος, “ the portion that devolves on us or falls to our share."

66

AIANMI, "I give," is used intransitively in some compounds; (a) exdidóvaι, "to disembogue or discharge itself," of a river; (b) évdidóvaı, “to yield, to give in, to flag, to fail"—sometimes absolutely (as in Thucyd. II. 81), and sometimes with paλakòv ovdév (as in Herod. III. 51, 105; Aristoph. Plut. 488); also in the sense of exdidóval of a river, as in Herod. III. 117; (c) éπididóvai, "to improve or increase," sometimes absolutely, as in Plat. Protag. 318 c; Thucyd. VIII. 13; and sometimes with such additions as Éπì τò μeîčov, Thucyd. VIII. 24; èπì Tò BéλTIOV, Plat. Protag. 318 A; ȧvтaπodidóvaι, "to correspond," Plat. Phæd. 72 A, B, though immediately before (71 E), it was used transitively.

'EAATNO, "I drive," often means "I ride or am carried on a horse or in a ship or carriage," and so also in its compounds aπ-, δι-, ἐξ-, ἐπ-, παρ-, προ-, προσ- ; as in Xen. Mem. III. 3, § 1 : πρῶτος ἐλαύνειν, “to ride first,” of the ἵππαρχος; προελαύνουσιν, ride before," of the iπTOTоğóτai.

they

"EXO, "I have or hold forth," besides its common use with the adverbs in -ws, is intransitive in the sense "I keep [myself], I stay" in some place, with karά and the accusative (Herod. VI. 39; Pind. Pyth. 1. 72; Eurip. Iph. A. 11; with éwvTous, Herod. III. 79); also "I hold on, I direct my course, I land at a place (Hom. Od. III. 182; Arist. Ran. 188); also "I project or stand up (Hom. Od. XIX. 38); also "I stand firm or hold on" (Ibid. 494) ; whence the imperative phrases ἔχε δή, ἔχ ̓ ἀτρέμας, ἔχ ̓ ἠρέμα, "keep quiet." Many of the compounds are used similarly, as in Aristoph. Aves, 1721: ἄναγε, δίεχε, πάραγε, πάρεχε, and the common éπíoxes, "stop." In the more general use the following compounds of exo are intransitive: (a) avéxew, "to stand up" (Hom. Il. XVII. 310), "to rise up," as the sun (Herod. III. 98), or a light

(Esch. Ag. 93); also "to hold on," "continue doing" (Thucyd. VII. 48; Xen. Hell. II. 2, 10) or "endure" (Soph. Aj. 211), and conversely "to cease from doing" (Xen. Hell. I. 6, § 28) or "to cease from enduring" (Soph. Ed. T. 174); (b) èçéxew, “to stand out or project" (Arist. Vesp. 1377), or, like ȧvéxew, of the sun (Arist. Fragm. 346; Dem. 1071, 3); (c) πроéɣew, "to excel," with the dative (Thucyd. 1. 9), or absolutely, as oi πρоéxovτes Bío, "the most prominent modes of life" (Arist. Eth. Nic. 1. 5, § 2); also "to precede" in space or time (Thucyd. III. 49, §1); (d) Kaтéxew, πроσéxεw, as nautical terms, "to touch at a place" (appellere), and the latter, from the phrasе Tроσéxew тov voûv, means absolutely "to attend;" (e) vπeρéɣew, "to excel," as Plat. Menex. 237 D: ἄνθρωπος τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ξυνέσει ὑπερέχει.

"IHMI, "I send forth or throw," is often used in the sense "I go forth,” as Eurip. Hec. 164: ποῖ στείχω; ποῖ δ' ήσω; and this has become the regular use of ∞, "I am come," formed from the perfect είκα. We have an intransitive use of the compounds, (a) ȧviévai, “to remit," "to become less violent,” of a wind or disease (Soph. Phil. 636, 753); (b) ȧpiévai, “to march or set sail" (Thucyd. VII. 19); (c) épiéval, " to give up to" (Plat. Protag. 338 A; Resp. 388 E); (d) pediévai, "to relax or cease from" (Hom. Il. XIII. 234) or "desist from an effort," as in the phrase μεθῆκε βίη (Π. XXI. 176) or μεθῆκε βίης (Od. XXI. 126).

KETON, "I conceal," means frequently "I am buried" (Soph. Ed. T. 968).

KAINO, “I cause to bend," is often intransitive in the sense "I incline or lean or tend," as Xen. Mem. III. 5, § 13: ǹ πódis ἐπὶ τὸ χεῖρον ἔκλινεν, “ the city fell off for the worse.

KOTPIZN, “I lighten," is used, like ȧvínu, of a disease, in the sense "I grow lighter" (Soph. Phil. 725).

AAMBANO, “I receive or take," is intransitive in its compounds, (a) avaraμßávw, “I revive or recover my strength" (Plat. Resp. 467 A); (b) vπоλaμßávw, “I assume or suppose" (Herod. II. 55) or "I interrupt or reply," especially in the phrase en ὑπολαβών.

MIFNTMI, "I mix," becomes intransitive in the compounds ἐπιμίγνυμι, “ I have free and reciprocal intercourse;” προσμίγ vuμ, "I join battle;" ovμpiyvvui, "I converse or come in contact."