a. for the word: The apostrophe, which marks an elision, as in an' aλλwv for ἀπὸ ἄλλων. The coronis, which marks a crasis, as in Tapуúριov for тò ἀργύριον. The diaresis, which marks a division between two vowels, as in ἀΐσσω. b. for the sentence: The names, The full stop, as in πρᾶγμα. The comma, as in πράγμα, The interrogation, as in πράγμα; λov ("limb," "member") and xóμμa (" a section") refer to the parts of the sentence over which the influence of the stop extends: for the same reason, the full stop, which governs the whole sentence, is called a period. A similar mode of speaking is adopted by the Jews, who call their accents, which are modes of punctuation, kings, emperors, &c., according to their domain in the sentence. The note of interrogation was not introduced till the 9th century A.D. Modern editors do not hesitate to use the note of admiration, as ὦ τῶν παρόντων κακών! φεύ, φεύ! or to include quotations between inverted commas, and though there is no ancient authority for either, the practice is very convenient, and is quite justifiable on general grounds. PART II. ETYMOLOGY. § I. Divisions of the Subject. 57 IN Etymology three subjects come under discussion. First, the proper classification of different kinds of words; secondly, the principles which guide the analysis or dissection of an individual word; and thirdly, the pathology of words, or the changes which are introduced into their structure by the contact of incompatible articulations. § II. Classification of Words. 58 In the Indo-Germanic languages all words may be comprised in two general classes: the PRONOUNS, or words which indicate space or position (puncta, extremitates, and lineamenta); and the WORDS CONTAINING ROOTS, which express the positional relations of general attributes. 59 In the former class, we find words, declinable or indeclinable, as the case may be, without any admixture with the other element of language. Words of the latter class require the addition of at least one pronominal suffix to make them words. 60 For this reason, we term the PRONOUNS or positional words, the organizing, constituent, or formative element of inflected language, and the ROOTS the material element. 61 By pronominal additions of a perfectly analogous nature, the same root becomes either a NOUN or a VERB, that is, it expresses either a thing, or an acting, or result of acting. The only etymological difference between the noun and the verb is this-that the pronominal suffixes, which mark the inflexions of the noun, are fixed or adverbial, while those which mark the persons of the verb are themselves capable of inflexion. When they lose this independent power of inflexion they become intermediate affixes, and the crude verb is then capable of receiving a set of case-inflexions, so that it becomes a noun. This sort of noun is called a participle. 62 As, then, the noun and verb spring from the same roots, or material part of language, and as their pronominal or positional affixes are strictly analogous, it is unnecessary to consider them as different parts of speech in an etymological classification; and the eight syntactical parts of speech when thus considered will fall into two great classes, represented by the following table: The Interjection is either an unmeaning cry or the vocative case of a noun. The Adverbs are either pronominal words or cases of nouns. The Prepositions and Conjunctions are pronominal adverbs performing certain functions in regard to the construction of nouns and the connexion of sentences. The Numerals are adjectives in Syntax, though etymologically pronouns. In a grammar it is not necessary to take any distinct notice of the Interjection, which has only an occasional influence on the syntax (see below, 453, ee, B). The Adverb is important, both in its form (259 sqq.) and in its syntactical use (435 sqq.). The Preposition appears in syntax as an important supplement to the cases (470 sqq.). And the Conjunction contributes to the machinery of co-ordinate and subordinate sentences (Syntax, Chapter IV.). § III. Analysis of Words. 63 The analysis of words depends upon our ability to discriminate between the positional and material elements of language. 64 Some of the roots are of positional or pronominal origin; but the analysis of a word does not inquire into the origin of its separate parts: it is satisfied with proving that they are separate. 65 In the Greek, as in other languages of the Indo-Germanic family, the root is a monosyllable or quasi-monosyllable, which appears as the variable part in a number of words which are otherwise identical. In compound words there are two or more of such roots, but their disintegration is a different, and easier, task than that which we are now describing. 66 We conclude à priori that the constant part in the identical forms, which are thus varied by differences of root, is of pronominal origin; and we find on examination that all the elements of it can be referred to one or other of the primitive pronouns. 67 There are three primitive relations of position: here, near to here, and there; or juxta-position, proximity, and distance. 68 The three primitive articulations, which are used to express these three relations of position, are the three primitive tenues II, Q, T, pronounced pa, qua, ta; which we shall call the first, second, and third pronominal elements. 69 Whatever syllable, in the constant or positional accompaniments of roots, either contains one of these elements, or can be proved to have been derived from it, is to be explained in the same way as the pronominal element itself. 70 The first pronominal element, denoting juxta-position or here, is used to express (a) the first personal pronoun; (b) the first numeral; (c) the point of departure in motion. 71 The second pronominal element, denoting proximity or nearness to the here, is used to express (a) the second personal pronoun; (b) the relative pronoun; (c) the reflexive pronoun. 72 The third pronominal element, denoting distance, is used to express (a) the third personal pronoun; (b) negation; (c) sepa ration. 73 The first pronominal element appears in Greek under the forms πa and μa only. 74 The second pronominal element, being originally a compound of guttural and labial, may present any form of the guttural, and any form of the labial (see above, 18, j) except μa, which is strictly appropriated to the first element. The derivation is in each case so easy, that no confusion can take place. The greatest apparent difficulty arises from the appearance of τ, 0, or d only, instead of the combination Ti, Oi, di representing the sound j. But this is only an apparent difficulty, for the original form presents itself in the first stage of the investigation. 75 The third pronominal element appears only as Ta or va, the remaining dental articulations being appropriated to replace the sibilants, which result from the guttural part of the second element. The form va is sometimes transposed to av according to 19, b, i, and the v often evanesces, according to 85, 106, 114. 76 The dental sibilants, which have attached themselves as secondary forms to the second element, obtain a fixed value in the articulations pa or λa, which imply motion either to or from. 77 If any one of the elements of position is combined with paλa, it indicates motion and continuation in a direction of which the element in question represents the point nearest to the subject; and by subjoining any one of the pronominal elements to any other of them, we denote a motion or continuation from the position denoted by the first of these combined elements towards that denoted by the second of them: and so on if there are more1. 78 The following are some important exemplifications of this principle. Pronominal Words and Forms. πα-ρá (= 1 + pa), "motion from here." T[a]-po-Ti (= 1 + pa + 3), "motion from here to there." Tа-ра (3+pa), "motion from thence." τα-ρα Ta-Fa (3+2), "motion from thence to this neighbourhood," i.e. "approximation." (This combination is used to express the number 2.) Ta-Fa-pa (3+2+pa), “motion from the point gained in the last combination." (This combination is used to express the number 3.) 1 This principle was first elucidated in the New Cratylus, § 131. |