Ta-TOS (3+3)," thence to there" (used to express the superlative, as Tapa expresses the comparative).

με-тá (1+3), “companionship, or pursuit with a view to companionship."

a-μa (2+1), "conjunction."

Root-words.

79 In exemplifying the analysis of words containing roots, we may select one which will show to the student how the pronoun may become applicable to the formation of a root; and consequently how the formative element may resolve itself into the material. The first pronominal combination mentioned above-namely, πapá-appears as the root of a large and important class of words, denoting actions which, in the strictest sense, imply and express their emanation from the subject as opposed to the object. The full investigation of this and other like procedures, belongs to a higher field than elementary grammar. It will be sufficient in this place to represent the facts as phænomena.

Tа-ρá, pronominal word or preposition, "from the side of." πé-pa-v (1 + pa + 3 = A + 3), adverb, "on the other side." Te-pá-w, verb, "to pass over."

πέ-ρα-ν

πι-π-рá-σкш, "to cause to pass over,"-" to sell."

π-рâ-уos (A+2+3), noun, "an outward action."

π-рá-ɣуw = πрáσow (A +2+2), verb, "to perform such an action.” π-ρα-γ-μα-τ= πραγ-μεντ- (Α + 2 + [1 + 3]), verbal noun, “ such an action considered in reference to its performance."

π-pa-Y-μA-TI-KÓ-S (A + 2 + [1 + 3 + 2]), adjective, "a person capable of acting."

π-ра-y-μа-τela (A + 2 + [1 + 3 + 2]), subst., "procedure." πрâу-σis =πρâğıs (A + 2 + 2), “acting," and so on.

§ IV. Pathology.

80 From this short specimen it will be seen that the analysis of words, or the search for roots, presumes some knowledge of the legitimate interchanges or commutations of letters. The explanation of this tendency to change is called the Pathology (ý maloλo

yun) of a language, or the doctrine of the Affections (wán), to which it is liable. The word wálos might in itself denote any change in the root or inflexion of a word, in which case Pathology would include the third as well as the second part of this grammar. But we employ the term, as the older grammarians did, in a narrower sense to denote those changes, which, whether or not introduced by the process of inflexion, leave the signification of the word just as it would have been, if no such change had taken place. Thus there is a difference of form only, and not of meaning, between the common words γέγραμμαι, ἐλλείπω, τύπτων, &c. and their origi nal and complete types γέγραφ-μαι, ἐν-λείπω, τύπτοντος, &c. In this narrower application, Affections are either euphonic, when they arise from the general repugnance of the Hellenic articulation to certain contacts or contiguities of sounds; dialectical, when they spring from the preference in certain tribes or certain districts of Greece for this or that sound or combination of sounds; and metrical, when the exigencies of some prevalent form of verse-composition have produced an influence on the structure of the language, as when the Homeric hexameter necessitated or suggested certain alterations in the measure of syllables. It is mainly to the first of these, or the euphonic affections of the Greek language in general, that the student's attention ought to be directed in a grammar like the present.

81 That letters pronounced by the same organ may be commuted for one another, is a fact which our daily experience teaches us: and no man can be acquainted thoroughly with his own language without having had his attention drawn to sundry changes resulting from dialectical differences of pronunciation, or an attention to what is called Euphony. The Pathology of the Greek language, of which we are about to speak, is not a treatise on Greek Dialects, but an explanation of phænomena in the language generally; a discussion which involves not only the question of dialects, but also those referring to the mutilations and corruptions which, according to the leading principles of Hellenism, may be expected to take place. The Affections are generally divided into the following classes: (a) quantitative (xaтà TóσOν), when the word is increased or diminished; and these are (1) πρόσθεσις and ἀφαίρεσις, addition or diminution at the beginning; (2) ἐπένθεσις and συγκοπή, insertion or contraction in the middle; (3) παραγωγή and ἀποκοπή,

addition or curtailment at the end: (b) qualitative (Kaτà πolóν), or the interchange of sounds : (c) local (κατὰ τόπον), (1) μετάθεσις, transposition, (2) тμñois, or separation of compounds. All these belong to both consonants and vowels. To consonants alone belong διπλασιασμός or doubling, and αναδιπλασιασμός or reduplication. Το vowels alone belong συναλοιφή or contraction, and ἔκτασις or lengthening.

A. Affections of Consonants.

82 A consonant may be changed either (I) at the end; (II) in the middle; or (III) at the beginning of a word. In the first of these cases, the change will proceed from some absolute law of the language operating on a previous alteration: in the second, from the letters which precede or follow: in the third, there is either a prosthesis or prefix, which seems arbitrary until it is explained, or some change within the word, which brings into operation the rules of the second case.

(I) Affections of Final Consonants.

83 It is an absolute law of the Greek language that no word can end with a mute, or with any other consonant than the three semi-vowels σ, v, p. For those, which terminate in and, are always combinations of a guttural or labial with s. And if we meet with ouk, oux, and ex, we must remember that the two former never occur at the end of a sentence, or before a consonant; and that the latter is always prefixed to some word beginning with a consonant. In fact our or oux is a mutilation of où-ke, for which we have ovxí, and è or é represents e-xis: and being thus affected by the words which immediately follow them, these monosyllables are proclitic (above, 54).

Obs. This general rule applies only to Greek words; foreign proper names, like Θεύθ (Plat. Phædr. p. 18 Β), Βήλ, Δανιήλ, Δαβίδ, Ἰακώβ, 'Ioάak, Xepovẞíp, and the like, are written as mere transcriptions from the original languages.

84 Of the other three consonants which may be finals, v is often a representative of s, or contains it by absorption (95), and p is of comparatively rare occurrence. Moreover, when s is the final letter, it must not be preceded by a dental or the liquid v (92, 93).

85 The letters v, s, which are of most frequent occurrence at the end of words, are themselves of such a weak and fleeting consistency, that they often become inaudible, and are omitted in writing. Even the final -v very often passes away into final -a, as in the accusatives of the third declension, and it is a rule that -- at the end of a word must become a, i.e. the 7 cannot stand, and the v evanesces: see below (107). This is called apocoре (άπокотý) оr apobole (ἀποβολή). The moveable v is commonly termed ν ἐφελKUσTIKOV, or "v attached," as if it were an arbitrary and secondary adjunct. But this is known to be an erroneous doctrine.

We find a moveable v in

a. datives plural in -σιν, together with ἄμμιν, ἔμμιν, σφίν, and ψίν;

b. 3 pers. in -ow, as Tieηow, TUTTOVσw (but not the Doric form in -VTI);

3

C. 3 pers. sing. in -ev, as ětvþev, tétudev, and sometimes the pers. plup. in e for ee;

d. in ταὐτόν, τοσοῦτον, τοιοῦτον, in Attic Greek.

e. in the suffixes -σw, -Oev, -pw, and in certain particles, such 23 κεν, νυν, πάλιν, νόσφιν, ἕνεκεν, ἔπειτεν, &c.

f. in the numeral exoow, but not in its dialectical forms εείκοσι οι εἴκατι.

The final v distinguishes πépav, "on the other side, beyond" (as πέραν θαλάσσης, πέραν διαπλεῖν), from πέρα (compar. περαιTéρw), “farther" in place or time, or metaphorically, as Téρа Tоû δέοντος, τοῦ καιροῦ. The MS. of Philodemus gives us πέρᾳ for this sense, and ἀντιπέρας appears as another form of ἀντιπέραν.

We find a moveable s at the end of e, mentioned above, and in the following indeclinable words: ἀτρέμας, ἔμπας, ἠρέμας, αὖθις, μέχρις, ἄχρις, πολλάκις, μεσσηγύς, οὕτως. Thus Euripides has ἀτρέμας, Plato ἄτρεμα; ἔμπας is found in the Attic poets, ἔμπα in Pindar and the Alexandrian writers, eμπns in Homer; péμas appears in Apollonius Rhodius; avet in Callimachus, but avet in Homer is for αὐτόθι; for μέχρις and ἄχρις, see Lobeck. ad Phrynich. p. 14 sq. ; πολλάκι is Ionic; μησσηγύς and μεσσηγύ are both poetical forms synonymous with μεταξύ ; οὕτως and οὕτω stand before either vowels or consonants in prose, but the former only before vowels in poetry.

In the following there is generally a distinction of meaning, when the s is omitted: ἀμφίς, ἄντικρυς, εὐθύς. In the imperative, the 2 p. s. generally loses its s or Ot. But in oxés, opés, and some verbs in -μ, it is retained.

It will be seen that the letters v, s become evanescent also in the middle and at the beginning of words (107, 114).

(II) Affections of Consonants in Contiguous Syllables.

86 The greatest number of consonants which can come together in the middle of the word is four; but this occurs seldom: we have, however, such words as éλтроν, кáμπтριον, and parathetic compounds like ἐκστρατεύω, ἐκστρέφω, ἐνστρέφω. Three consonants do not stand together, unless the first, the last, or both the first and last are liquids or σ; at the beginning of a word the first of these letters must be o, as in στρατός, σφραγίς, σπλάγχνον, σκλῆ vai; and conversely, in contiguous syllables the middle letter of three must not be σ, whence we have affections like Téτuple for τέτυφσθε, πεπλέχθαι for πεπλέκσθαι, ἠγγέλθαι for ἠγγέλσθαι, &c. When σo appear before another consonant, the first σ may be omitted, if this occasions no ambiguity; thus we have dvoτηvos for δύσστηνος, κάσχεθε (Ηom. Il. xi. 702) for κάτ-σχεθε = κάσ-σχεθε, &c. But we write TроσσTeixw, Tроσσтvai, &c., that there may be no confusion between πρός and πρό.

υρ.

87 The Greek language does not tolerate the following combinations of consonants: μp, μλ, ßv, δλ, Whenever they appeared in the Pelasgian language, we have in Greek the following substitutes: μβρ οι βρ for μρ, as in ἄμβροτος, and in βροτός for μορτός; and μβλ or βλ for μλ, as μέμβλωκα and βλώσκω from ἔμολον; μν for βν, as in σεμνός for σεβ-νός; λλ for δλ, as in καλλός, afterwards καλός, from καδ-λός; νδρ for vp, as in ανδρός for ἀνρός.

88 Whenever a labial precedes μ in the middle of a word, it is changed to u, as in γράφω, γραμμή, γέγραμ-μαι; τύπτω, τύμ-μα, τέτυμ-μαι; τρίβ-ω, τριμμός, τέτριμ-μαι.

89 When a tenuis or aspirate guttural stands before μ, it is often changed into the medial y; as in πλέγμα from πλέκω ;