his chiefs, some of them secretly joined with Sapor IL of Persia; and one named Phisak, the Armenian king's chamberlain, entered into an agreement with Varaz-shahpoor, the Persian governor of Atropatena, to deliver his master into the hands of Sapor. The Persian, accordingly, solicited an interview with Diran, which was granted, and proceeding to a district near the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates, he met the king on a hunting party, attended by his betrayer. Varaz-shahpoor seized the king, with his wife and son, and deprived him of sight by passing a burning coal before his eyes: he then carried him to Sapor in Assyria.

- Father Chamich,-who enters into some minute details respecting the intercourse between Tiran and Julian the Apostate (who, he says, gave the former, "as a mark of his favour and esteem, his own abominable portrait, which bore a great resemblance to his diabolical features"), to which details M. Saint Martin makes no allusion whatever, though they bear upon a point he is anxious to establish-relates the fate of the Armenian king in the following succinct manner: "Shapur, not liking the terms of peace (offered by Valentinian*) marched towards Greece. On approaching the frontiers of Armenia, he recollected the injury he had sustained from Tiran on the first expedition of Julian, and determined to take revenge. Disguising his real intentions, he invited Tiran to a friendly conference, and on their meeting in the village of Anzukh, in the province of Apahunies, he upbraided him with his former treachery, and springing upon him, plucked out his eyes. The Persian monarch immediately after ordered him to retire to the village of Coash, near the foot of Mount Aragaz, there to spend the remainder of his miserable existence." The difference in the dates of the respective writers occasions some terrible anachronisms. The transactions between Diran and Julian, related with so much precision by Father Chamich, could not have taken place at all if the former reigned from A.D. 322 to 338, as M. Saint Martin states, for Julian did not attain the purple till A.D. 361, twenty-three years after. On, the other hand, M. Saint Martin has ascribed the declaration of war by Constantine against the Persians, and the expedition he sent against them, to the complaint made to him, by the Armenian chiefs, against Sapor, for the seizure of their king. This event took place, according to Father Chamich, A.D. 363; whereas Constantine died twenty-six years before!

This is but one slight specimen of the discord prevailing between these two authorities, in a part of Armenian history comparatively modern, and capable of being adjusted by the synchronisms of Greek writers. The reign of Arsaces II. is described so differently by Father Chamich and M. Saint Martin (both deriving their facts from Armenian authorities) that we can scarcely select a single point of accordance between them.. The effect of this conflict of authorities destroys our confidence in Armenian history altogether.

This part of the history (the third) brings the events both of Upper and Lower Armenia down to A.D. 428, when Artashir or Artaces, the last of the Arsacidæ, was deposed by the Persian king, at the instance of the Armenian nobles.

* Valentinian did not succeed to the purple till A.D. 364.

During the fourth period, which extends to 456 years, Armenia › was governed by prefects sent by the King of Persia, the caliphs of Bagdad, and the Greeks. This is a calamitous portion of the history; the Armenians had to contend not only against political but religious antagonists. "We see in this part," says Mr. Avdall, “the extraordinary struggles of Christianity against idolatry, the memorable martyrdoms of the Vardanians and Levondians, the treachery of the Vasakians, the heroic bravery of the Vahanians, and of other faithful Armenian chiefs, who shed their blood in defending their church from the profanation of the fire-worshippers, the Persians, and the infidel caliphs. Armenia was literally rendered a slaughter-house; churches were converted into temples for the worship of fire; priests were superseded by the infidel magi; clergy and laity were doomed to imprisonment or banishment, and exposed to the tortures of fire and the rack."

The fifth period comprehends the history of the Bagratian kings. The Bagratians, Father Chamich tells us, were descended from Abraham by the line of Isaac; that is, they were of Jewish origin. During the captivity of his race by Nebuchadnezzar, Shûmbat, an individual of this family, came to Armenia. One of his posterity, a Jew, named Bagarat, was ennobled by Valarsaces (of whom we have already made honourable mention); and his family were afterwards known by the title of Bagratians. Ashot was the first of these Israelitish kings; he was a man of great talents, and he pleased the Caliph of Bagdad, who, A.D. 859, invested him with supreme power in Armenia. Under the Bagratian kings, who swayed a kind of delegated sceptre (though some affected the title of Shahinshah, "king of kings"), the country enjoyed a few snatches of prosperity; but internal feuds and external oppressions soon embittered their state, and at length, the schism between the Armenian and Greek churches, and the political vices of the princes and nobles, led to the extinction of the monarchy, A.D. 1047.

The ceremonial distinctions between the Armenian and Greek forms of worship were first regarded as essential in the year 944. "These little variations," says the historian, "being invested with more importance than they deserved, were the occasion of an eternal disagreement between the two churches, which will probably go on till Christianity itself shall cease to exist."

The seventh portion of the history is occupied with the reigns of the Reubenian kings, beginning with Reuben I., a bold Armenian chief, related to Gagik, the last of the Bagratian kings. He succeeded in erecting a little kingdom in Cilicia, A.D. 1080. The power of these petty princes was limited. They maintained a friendly intercourse with the crusaders. Armenia, during their reigns, was the scene of internal commotions, as well as of the struggles of invaders, Turks, Scythians and Tartars, Greeks, Persians and Egyptians. The latter overturned the Reubenian monarchy with circumstances of great barbarity, A.D. 1375. "From this period, the Armenians have been a wandering race, their glory sunk; their existence as a nation annihilated, and the fame of their ancient renown only known to a few who have access to their records."

Father Chamich adds a seventh part, which describes the expatriation of the Armenians, the state of the Haican church, the irruptions of Tamerlane, the cruelties of Shah Abbas, and the inroads of the Turks, which have reduced Armenia to what it is; and Mr. Avdall has commemorated the events which have befallen the country and its dispersed people from the year 1780, when Father Chamich's history closes, till 1827. Mr. Avdall expresses a hope that his work "will excite in the breast of Christians of every denomination a feeling of sympathy for the fate of his oppressed country, and rouse the dormant embers of patriotism in the bosoms of his expatriated countrymen, to exert all their power for the regeneration of Armenia."

MR. RICKARDS' "INDIA."

TO THE EDITOR.

SIR: Having lately perused the able review of Mr. Rickards' " India in the Asiatic Journal for the present month, I am induced to offer a few remarks on the observations alleged to have been made by that gentleman respecting the Moofussil special commission, of which I was a member.

The points I allude to are those contained in the following quotation, as specified in page 159:

"It is true that the Bengal Government proposed, and even ordered, that compensation should in all these cases be given to the party desseised, proportioned to the value of his interest in the property resumed. But who were the parties to settle and adjudge compensation? Persons who neither knew, nor ever can know, the real value of the property to be resumed; and who, in addition to the errors of ignorance, may often find it impossible to satisfy its possessors by any thing like an equitable pecuniary consideration for the loss of what they are often more attached to than life itself."

I shall not enter into any lengthened discussion to prove, that all governments have clearly a right to pass remedial laws. Regulation I. of 1821, constituting the commission in question, was of that character; and it may now be stated, without much fear of contradiction, after several years' experience, that the enactment has answered, to the fullest extent, the benevolent intentions of the framers of it, and that a most favourable impression has been made on the minds of our native subjects through the effects of its operation.

With regard to the adequacy or otherwise of the compensation awarded to the parties desseised, I shall merely observe, that in cases appealed, the amount was frequently reduced, so, if a mistake has been made in that particular, those persons have the benefit of it who, generally speaking, had forfeited all claim to lenient consideration by grossly fraudulent practices.

I am, Sir, &c.

A LATE MEMBER OF THE MOOFUSSIL SPECIAL COMMISSION. 9th June 1830.

MANNERS OF THE TIBETANS;

DESCRIBED BY A CHINESE AUTHOR.

SOME further extracts from the description of Tibet, by a Chinese author, translated by Father Hyacinth and M. Klaproth, quoted in our last volume (p. 10), are subjoined.

FOOD.

The people of Tibet subsist in general on tsan-pa, beef and mutton, milk, cheese, &c. The dry nature of this food obliges them to take tea immediately after eating. For this reason, both rich and poor regard tea as the prime necessary of life. They boil the tea, and then mix with it butter and salt. They also eat sometimes, instead of the tsan-pa, a hash denominated touba.* Most commonly they do not dress the beef and mutton. They have no fixed hours for their meals, eating only when hunger requires. They eat little but often. Men and women, old and young, take up the food with their fingers. After the meal, they lick the bowl, and place it in their bosom. The beer peculiar to these barbarians is made from grey barley. It is weak and sourish; and they call it tsiang. They make a spirit from the same grain. Men and women, during their intoxication, embrace each other, and laugh and sing in the streets. At their entertainments, the master of the house seats himself in the most distinguished place. He does not go to meet his guests, or attend them when they depart. If the guest is of higher rank than the entertainer, he is offered wine before the rest. The greatest compliment which can be paid to a guest is to present him with some butter. The opulent give entertain, ments two or three times a month, and the poor once, at least. The tables are covered with preserves, apricots, grapes, and beef and mutton. Each entertainer regales his guests according to his means.

RULES OF POLITENESS.

From the kalons, the deïboons, the debas, down to the lowest classes, all the Tibetans take off their hats in the presence of the Dalai Lama and the Banjieen. They cross their arms over the heart, and put out their tongue rolled up to a point: this is regarded as a mark of great politeness. They then let their arms fall down, stand up and cross their legs, and approach the throne. The Dalai Lama and the Banjieen put their hands on their heads, which is termed "receiving the benediction." Every person who presents himself to these persons should offer them a handkerchief. It is reputed a piece of civility amongst persons of equal rank to make a mutual exchange of handkerchiefs. If a man of high rank meets one of a lower condition, the latter takes off his hat, and lowering his arms, places himself beside the other. The ghalons and the others comport themselves towards the generals and other officers, civil and military, as the lower order of the people do towards the ghalons, the deïboons, and the debas.

MARRIAGES.

Marriages are celebrated according to the importance of the families to which a person is about to become allied. The degree of esteem enjoyed

See Vol. I. N. S. p. 252.

by a man is in proportion to his literary acquisitions; by a woman, according to her aptitude for trade, her knowledge of household affairs, and of the prices of commodities. Marriages between noble and wealthy families are managed by the intervention of a female friend. In other families, after the young man and the girl are agreed, the former causes some of his relations or friends to be invited, to whom his family give handkerchiefs : when his parents say, "In our family there is a fine youth, who wishes tó become allied to the daughter of such a family." The go-betweens take the handkerchiefs, proceed to the residence of the young woman, and demand her in marriage. If her family consent, they fix the day of the nuptials, which takes place in the house of the lady's relations, and to which all the relations and friends of both families are invited. The gobetweens then bring wine and handkerchiefs on behalf of the young man, whose age they declare. The relations of the lady, if no objection is raised, drink the wine and divide the handkerchiefs amongst them, and one of the go-betweens attaches the ornament in turquoise mounted in gold, and called sedzia, to the head of the young lady, to whom presents are then made of tea, dresses, gold, silver, cattle and sheep. If any objection is made, they do not drink the wine or take the handkerchiefs. When the time arrives for proceeding to seek the bride, the two families issue their invitations. The guests arrive, bringing presents which augment the dowry, to which the relations of the bride contribute land and cattle. The day of the nuptials, neither carriages nor horses are used, but a tent is constructed in front of the bride's residence, in the midst of which are placed three or four square mattresses; and then a plate of corn is taken, the grains of which are scattered on the ground. The bride is then led by the arm, and made to sit on the highest place. Her father and mother are near her, and the other relatives on either side, according to rank. Before them are put small tables covered with fruit and plates. The repast being over, the members of the two families take the bride by the arms and lead her on foot to the house of her intended husband: if it is far off, they conduct her thither on horseback. Grains of wheat or grey barley are thrown upon the bride: on this occasion the family of the wife gives handkerchiefs to all the relations of the husband. When the bride has arrived at the house of the husband, no further presents are made to her, but they take her by the arm and place her near the bridegroom, and they give both wine and tea. A quarter of an hour afterwards the new married couple sit apart, and all the relations make presents of handkerchiefs. The individuals of the highest rank who are present suspend these handkerchiefs about the necks of the young people, whilst the latter put into their bosoms, or place in a heap before them, the handkerchiefs which they had received from their equals. At the end of the repast, the near re latives take some of the meat and fruit and carry them home. Next day, the relatives and entire families of the married people, clothed in handsome dresses, and with their necks wrapped in handkerchiefs, walk with them in the streets, pay a visit to near relations, and offer them tea and wine.