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Great having so named a beautiful opal which de- | key) is of small value, but is frequently used as an corated the imperial crown. Leopold the Second, ornament, on account of its beautiful colour, which is emperor of Germany, had in his possession a beautia very pleasing opaque and delicate blue. Perhaps ful oriental stone, of one inch in diameter, and of im- its opacity ought to prevent it from being considered mense value, which is generally described as an opal. as a gem, but this very imperfection has been the cause This gem is also held in high esteem by the Turks. of the high estimation in which it is held in some The best opals are brought from Hungary and the countries. The term turquoise is applied to two widely Faroe Islands, and are distinguished by the epithets different substances. The first is called bone turquoise, of Noble, Precious, and Oriental. According to Klap- and actually consists of fossil remains, especially teeth, roth, this stone consists of nine-tenths pure silica, and which, while imbedded in the earth, have absorbed a the remaining tenth water. It is generally clear, lin- solution of copper, and thus acquired their beautiful pid, and colourless, but exhibiting in a remarkable hue. This colour may in some specimens be deepened degree the peculiar kind of lustre, which, for want of by the application of heat; in others, by the same a better appellation, has received that of opalescence, application, entirely removed. The turquoise is the but which might more properly be called iridescence, only petrifaction which is submitted to the tool of the or a similarity to the rainbow. The effect consists in graver. The other kind is called mineral turquoise, the surface of the stone being apparently covered with or Calaite, and is found massive only at Nichabour, in spots and figures, of various shapes, and of the most Persia. The composition of this stone has been so brilliant colours. These change their forms, mingle differently stated, that it must be considered very unwith cach other, and shift their places, according to certain. the relative situations of the light, the stone, and the eye of the observer. In order to favour, as much as possible, these beautiful appearances, the opal is seldom cut with facets, like other stones, but in the form called cabochon, that is, with a smooth convex surface, without angles. It has been frequently proved that all the colours of the opal may entirely change or disappear when the stone is divided into pieces: it would appear, therefore, that the surface of the stone is peculiarly formed to produce the refraction of the sun's rays, which creates so beautiful an effect.

The stone called semi-opal is not transparent, nor does it exhibit the vivid iridescence of the noble opal. It is consequently little esteemed, though we must except the variety called hydrophane, which is naturally white and opaque, but on being immersed in water, it absorbs a large quantity of that fluid, and becomes quite transparent, and sometimes even opalescent: on drying, however, it returns to its former state. Opals are generally discovered in detached pieces, in an envelope of different kinds of stone, from the size of a pin's head to that of a walnut. An immense number of small grains of opal are sometimes found dispersed through the substance of porphyry; in which case the beautiful appearance of the porphyry causes it to be used as an article of jewellery. The darker the colour of the stone, the more brilliant of course do the opals appear. A curious process is therefore adopted to blacken the porphyry, which consists of first soaking the stone in oil, and then subjecting it to the action of fire, by which the oil is carbonized, and made to fill the pores of the stone with a fine kind of soot. The difficulty of obtaining this gem of sufficient size to display all its beauties, makes it very precious. A fine oriental opal has been estimated at double the price of a sapphire of the same size.

The next stone, in respect of hardness, is the modern CHRYSOLITE, thought to be the topaz of the ancients. It was called by Haüy the Peridot, and still retains the name in France. That it is not much esteemed as a jewel, is apparent by the common saying of the French lapidaries—

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Lapis Lazuli is so named from the word azul, used by the Arabians to designate this substance. It is sometimes reckoned among the gems, but is now very seldom seen as an ornament. The specimens of this stone which are of a rich blue colour, inclining to purple, have been called Oriental, while the pale blue are less esteemed. Our lapis lazuli was the sapphire of the ancients, and was also called by them cyanus, denoting "the colour of the sky." Its greatest value at present arises from its supplying us with the beautiful blue pigment called ultramarine, which, owing to the softness of the stone, is easily obtained by pulverization. A method has lately been discovered by which this stone, or its powder, may be made artificially. The process is cheap, but somewhat complex, and the substance seems to owe its colour to a peculiar compound of sulphur with soda.

Lapis lazuli is met with in various countries. That of Asia and Africa, however, is far superior to such as is found in Germany and Bohemia; and which is too often passed off for the finer sort.

The Vesuvian, or idiocrase, is also known by the name of the brown volcanic hyacinth. It is prepared by the lapidaries of Naples, and sold as a Vesuvian gem, or such as is procured from the burning mountain. Its value is trifling, and it is seldom used as an article of jewellery. Its colour is usually reddish-brown, but it is likewise found of an olive, or blackish-green.

THE DYAKS OF BORNEO.-That portion of their creed which obtains the greatest influence over their mode of life, arises from a supposition which they entertain that the owner of every human head which they can procure will serve thein in the next world. The system of human sacrifice is, upon this account, carried to so great an extent, that it totally surpasses that which is practised by the Battas of Sumatra, or, I believe, by any people yet known. A man cannot marry until he has procured a human head; and he who is in possession of several may be distinguished by his proud and lofty bearing; for the greater number of heads which a man has obtained, the greater will be his rank in the next world; and this opinion naturally induces his associates to consider him entitled to superior consideration upon earth. A man of consequence cannot be buried until a human head has been procured by his friends; and at the conclusion of peace between two tribes, the chief of each presents a prisoner to the other to be sacrificed on the spot. The loss of human life occasioned by these latter-named ceremonies falls far short of that which is produced by the necessity of obtaining a human head to grace the marriage rites, a necessity which tends so strongly to check the increase of population, that had the lawgiver who introduced it apprehended that the island would speedily become too thickly inhabited, he could not have hit upon a more efficacious mode of prevention.-EARLE'S Voyage to the Eastern Seas

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THE SYRIAN COAST. V.

THIRTY miles of mountainous country lie between Saide and Beyrout, the roots of Lebanon here running down to the sea. This rugged tract, for many miles inland, is mainly inhabited by the Druses, a people whose origin and faith are alike involved in obscurity. They doubtless occupied their present station in the time of the Crusades, but as little community of feeling existed between the Franks and the inhabitants of Lebanon, so nothing seems to have been known of the varieties of name, origin, and religion, which are seen to exist among them. When Syria was conquered by the Turks, (A.D. 1516,) the mountaineers valiantly defended themselves, and at length took the station of tributaries, rather than of subjects. The Druses, though far from the most numerous, conducted themselves with such bravery and address, that the task of collecting and paying over the miri, or tribute, was committed to one of their chiefs, whose authority was extended not only over their Christian neighbours, the Maronites, but also to the various schismatic Mohammedan sects, the Mutualis, Yezidis, Ansaries, Ismaelies, &c., who occupy numerous mountain fastnesses along the line of Anti-Libanus. The power of the prince, however, is little more than nominal among the Druses themselves, the sheiks of each village (especially those of the same family as the emir,) being the real rulers; everything, indeed, has a feudal aspect.

One of the princes of the Druses, named Fakr-elDin, early in the seventeenth century, conceived the idea of rendering himself independent of the Porte, and for this purpose entered into some communication with the Italian traders who repaired to the coast. These, returning to Europe, spread the news of a people in Lebanon, called Druses, who abhorred the Mohammedans; whence it was hastily inferred that they must be Christians, and some writers went so far, as to propagate the notion that they were the descendants of the retainers of a Count de Dreux, who was conveniently imagined to have settled in Lebanon during the era of the Crusades. Some time after Fakr-el-Din visited Italy in person, and gave encouragement to a theory so likely to procure him succour against the Porte, who, having discovered his design, was now preparing to crush him. He remained in Italy for some years, his country being governed by his son in his absence, but upon his return, having disgusted his subjects by an affectation of European habits, he was gradually deserted by them, his son killed in battle, and himself betrayed and carried a prisoner to Constantinople, where he was strangled by order of the Sultan, (A.D. 1631.)

The attention of the learned being thus turned to the Druses, it was soon discovered that their language was Arabic, without any admixture of a Western tongue, and that all that could be ascertained respecting their customs and religion was utterly irreconcilable with the theory of their Christian origin. Although the matter can hardly be regarded as fully settled, (for the sources of the information are not beyond the suspicion of prejudice,) it seems probable that they were originally disciples of the Fatimite Caliph, Hakem*, who upon his death sought safety in Lebanon, from time immemorial the refuge of With fanatic sectaries proscribed in other quarters. some of these, (possibly the descendants of the old Canaanites,) they seem to have formed an alliance, in

Hakem reigned in Egypt at the beginning of the eleventh cen turv. He was a madman, who proclaimed himself a divinity, destroyed alike churches and mo-ques, and was at length assassinated. The Druses, however, believe that he still exists.

They are said to have been conducted by one Mohammed ben Ismael, surnamed El Druzi; whence the name,of the sect

corporating their tenets with their own; and, if the accounts of travellers are to be credited, they still retain, and practise in secret, the idolatrous worship of a calf, have certain secret doctrines disclosed only to initiated classes‡, which are stated to inculcate the indifference of all human actions, and carry these out to an extent subversive of all the bonds of civil society. Dissimulation appears habitual to them, and when at a distance from home they assume the guise of devoit Mohammedans; and their chief emir has been known occasionally to receive baptism, in order to conciliate the Maronites. The practice of blood-revenge is strictly enforced among them, their fanatic valour is also remarkable, and they are equally detested and feared by all their neighbours.

However bad their moral character, the Druses are alowed to be industrious and hospitable. Their country is a safe refuge from the tyranny of the pachas of the plains, for they will endure any extremity, rather than give up a fugitive, whatever his country, or his religion. They are almost all proprietors of land, which they cultivate most diligently; their mountains are cut into terraces, water-courses are constructed, mulberry and olive trees, abound and in the winter they employ themselves in some rude manufactures of gold thread, silk, and woollen, their clothing being almost universally produced at home. This is sufficiently characteristic. The men wear loose breeches, a waistcoat and a cloak, all of coarse woollen, black with white stripes, in which the chiefs have threads of gold interwoven; they also wear a large flat spreading turban, and are girded with a white or red fringed sash, and formerly never stirred abroad, unarmed. The women, who are described as goodlooking, are dressed in a blue jacket and petticoat, go bare-footed, and have their hair divided into plaits, to which silver coins are often appended. When in full dress, they also wear a horn, made of tin or silver, and a foot at least in length, upon their foreheads, from which descends a white veil, which envelopes the whole body, and descends to the feet.

The number of the Druses has been very variously estimated, but seems at all times to have been greatly overstated. The official returns of the Egyptian government give but about 170,000 as the whole population of the mountains, of whom the Druses form only one-fifth part; yet such is their bravery and intelligence, that they have very long been the leading class. All who in this quarter have aimed at distressing the Turkish government, whether rebel pachas or foreign foes, have looked for assistance from the Druses. They were only prevented by intestine feuds, from assisting the Sheik Daher, who reckoned on their support; they were in communication with the Russians when their fleet swept the Syrian coast in 1770; they were well disposed to join the French in 1799, but were deterred by the event of the siege of Acre.

The principal town of the Druses is Deir-el-Kamr, situated on the side of a mountain, about five-andtwenty miles to the south-east of Beyrout. Its population is estimated at 5000 or 6000, the majority of

They are stated to be divided into three classes, the Djahelin, (Ignorant, the common people,) and two classes of the initiated, termed Akkals, (Intelligent.) These last form a kind of priestly order, and are also the military leaders.

In 1760, an aga of the Janissaries took refuge among them, on account of some quarrel with the pacha of Damascus. He was demanded by the pacha from the chief emir, who in turn demanded The latter positively

him of the sheik in whose house he resided. refused to give him up, upon which the emir gave him notice that he would cut down fifty of his olive-trees, (a main article of wealth in this region,) daily, until he complied, and immediately began to carry his threat into effect. The trees were felled for twenty successive days, when the other sheiks took part with their neighbour, and a civil war would have ensued, but that the Turk, unknown to his host, generously sought an asylum elsewhere.

them being Christians. Upon the opposite hill is Beteddin, the palace of the emir, a modern building in the Saracenic style of architecture; it stands upon a platform of rock, steep and precipitous on three sides, and is described by a recent traveller as a noble

structure.

The whole ménage strongly reminded one of the old feudal times: the warders lazily stretched at the gate horses saddled and picketed in the outer court, to be ready at a moment's call-retainers lounging about in all directions, the household consisting of two hundred persons hounds basking in the sun-falconers, with hawks upon their arms-all these objects concurred to form a highly interesting and animated scene.

Some of the public apartments were shown to us: the council-chamber, or grand reception-room, was handsome, of square form, having the centre crowned by a dome, which rested upon four pointed arches, supported by light and elegant pillars. The walls, round which ran a cushioned divan, were covered with arabesque painting, having smal landscapes in some of the compartments tolerably well executed: the floor was of marble.

One of the mountains that surround Saide has numerous caverns, of large dimensions, scooped out in its face, which still exhibit some remains of ancient carvings in bas-relief, and some paintings, and bearing a general resemblance to the Tombs of the Kings at Alexandria, have been named the Sepulchres of the Kings of Syria, with what truth it seems impossible

to determine.

Proceeding northward towards Beyrout, a deep and rapid stream, called Nahr-el-Aweli, is crossed by a large stone bridge. The coast next recedes to form a bay, about four miles across, at the bottom of which is a small village, called Jee, believed to occupy the site of Porphyrion, once a place of some consequence, but of which only a few broken pillars and some shapeless ruins remain. Beyond the bay occurs the river Damour, the ancient Tamyras, on the further side of which the hills commence which terminate in the promontory of Beyrout. Numerous ruins are scattered over the adjacent country.

Beyrout stands upon a gentle rising ground, washed on three sides by the sea*, but opening on the fourth on to a rich plain, planted with olive, mulberry, fig, orange, and other trees. It is a place of considerable trade, exporting silk, cotton, and corn, and receiving rice and tobacco, although its harbour (formed by a mole composed of granite columns,) can only admit boats. Its population' is estimated at about 12,000, the majority of whom are Christians,

At Beyrout (says Dr. Bowring) the American missionaries have schools of some reputation. One large one, attached to the premises of the mission, is stated to be more deserving of the name of college than any other institution in Syria; for, in addition to studying Arabic grammatically, arithmetic, geography, astronomy, and chemistry, &c., with the aid of apparatus, are included. I had an opportunity of seeing many of the Syrian youths who are educated in the American missionary schools, and found them more advanced than any other boys of their age in Syria. They are all taught English.

Beyrout is the ancient Berytus, a Phoenician city, whose name is said to be derived from a temple of the idol Baal-Berith, which it once contained. After suffering severely both from the Assyrians and the Macedonians, it was destroyed in the civil wars which led to the occupation of Syria by the Romans; being rebuilt by that people, it was raised to the dignity of a colony by Augustus, and received from him the appellation of Colonia Felix Julia, in honour of his daughter, and also in allusion to its pleasant situation. It was next bestowed upon Herod, who built an am

* The sea to the north bears the name of St. George's Bay, from a tradition current with all classes, that on its shore took place the combat between the patron saint of England and the dragon.

phitheatre, some remains of which still exist. Here it was that he held an assembly of his chief men, in which two of his sons were condemned to death on the charge of conspiring against their father's life. When again in the hands of the Romans, a celebrated school of jurisprudence was established at Berytus, (perhaps by the Emperor Alexander Severus, a native of Phoenicia,) which subsisted until the city was destroyed by an earthquake (A.D. 551). In less than eighty years after Syria was overrun by the Mohammedans, and in their hands Berytus remained until captured by the Crusaders, under Baldwin the First, in 1110, who retained it till 1187. It then surrendered to Saladin, but was by him ceded to the Franks in 1192, and possessed by them until their final expulsion from the Holy Land. It then fell into decay. During the war against Sheik Daher, Beyrout was seized by Djezzar (afterwards pacha of Acre,) having

been before twice bombarded by the Russian fleet, who upon one occasion landed and burned 300 houses. The ancient defences being thus destroyed, Djezzar erected new walls, in the construction of which he levelled several ancient edifices for the sake of their materials; so that now few remains of antiquity are to be seen, except the foundations of the ancient walls, which extend far beyond the present ones, and run a the hands of the pasha of Egypt in 1832; and, as he Beyrout fell into had a large force assembled there, it became the scene of the first warlike operations of the Allies in the present war. It was cannonaded by the shipping on the 11th and 12th of September last, while the troops effected a landing at Djournie, a short distance abandoned by the Egyptian forces, who on that day to the northward, and being on the 10th of October received a severe defeat, was immediately occupied by

considerable distance into the sea.

the Allies.

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HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE NOTICE OF CHRIST'S HOSPITAL. III.

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ALTHOUGH Christ's Hospital may be deemed in some respects a representative of the old Gray Friars' convent, yet the successive rebuildings and alterations have removed the hospital somewhat away from the precise spot where the convent stood. This spot is now occupied by houses, the rental of which forms part of the income of the establishment, while the hospital itself occupies a plot of ground held by a lease from the corporation for several centuries, at a merely nominal rent: this favourable lease appears to have been granted about two centuries ago, on condition of certain property being made over by the hospital to the corporation.

Formerly all ingress to the hospital was by exceedingly obscure and mean passages; but the principal entrance is now through handsome iron gates from Little Britain, at the north-east corner of the building. On entering at this gateway, we see the main area or quadrangle of the building, called the Ditch, from an old ditch, which is now twelve feet below the surface. At the left of the entrance stands the house of the treasurer, an old building, which has been gradually enlarged and improved; and near it are the houses of the head-master and the matron. The countinghouse, nearly adjoining the treasurer's house, is a VOL. XVII.

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commodious building, containing clerks' offices; a court-room, where the general business of the committee of management is conducted, and other buildings. The court-room is adorned with portraits of the principal benefactors to the hospital; including one of Edward the Sixth, by Holbein, and one of Charles the Second, by Sir Peter Lely.

The cloisters form the most ancient part of the building, and, being consecrated, are used as a burialplace for officers of the establishment: they open by Gothic arches into a paved quadrangle, called the garden. The western side of these cloisters was formerly surrounded by the old hall; but they were removed on the erection of the new hall, and wards for the boys built on their site. Near this spot is a shop, kept by one of the beadles: this may seem curious to the reader; but, as the boys are strictly forbidden to pass the gates, without special permission, the beadles are permitted, under strict regulations, to sell those little matters which school-boyswhether "Blues" or others-are wont to desire for their games and play-ground pleasures: the profits of this shop are divided among the beadles generally.

Westward of the cloisters was formerly a large range of dilapidated buildings appropriated to various

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purposes, but since pulled down, in order to make room for the new hall, and for the spacious playground between the hall and Newgate-street. These buildings were the old mathematical and grammar schools, a reading school, the old conventual refectory, a wash-house, a sick ward, an apothecaries' house, and other offices and apartments for domestics. These were one by one pulled down, according as the funds of the institution enabled the governors to rebuild or improve the various apartments; and the new hall was built partly on the site of the old city-wall, and partly on the foundations of the old refectory. This hall, which is by far the most elegant building belonging to the hospital, is a Gothic structure, of which the principal front is of Portland stone, and the back and ends of brick. The fabric is supported by buttresses, has an embattled and pinnacled summit, and an octagonal tower at each extremity, with a range of nine splendid windows in the principal front. The lower story contains the governor's room, the wardrobe, the buttery, and other offices; and the base ment is principally occupied by a noble kitchen. The upper story is entirely occupied by the hall, which is one of the noblest rooms in England, being 187 feet long, 51 wide, and 46 high. The principal entrance to the hall is by a stone staircase at the east end, and there are three others leading from different offices. The room is lined with oak wainscotting to the height of ten feet, on the north and south sides; and over this wainscotting, on the north side, are carved busts of King Edward, the names and arms of the principal benefactors, &c.; while the panelling on the south side is surmounted by the fine range of windows. A raised platform, together with galleries, is erected at the west end, which contains also an organ, the great picture of Holbein, and two stained glass windows. Tables and benches are ranged along the hall, from end to end, with a pulpit on one side, and the steward's table on the other. A clock is placed behind the steward's chair, and suspended from the ceiling are twelve brass chandeliers. In the centre of the northern side is an enormous picture, painted by Verrio, representing the presentation at court of some of the Christ's Hospital children.

Immediately behind the great hall is the new infirmary, built in 1822, and fitted up with every accommodation for the reception of the boys when sick: a house appropriated to the medical attendant is attached to the northern end of the building. At the eastern end of the hall is a communication to the writing school, an old building of a more substantial character than most other parts of the hospital; and near this are several residences for the inferior officers of the establishment. The grammar and mathematical schools, which, so far as the education of the boys is concerned, are the most important parts of the building, are situated at the northern side of the hospital. They are constructed of a yellowish brick, in the Tudor style of architecture: the grammar schools occupying the western, and the mathematical the eastern division, the entrances to which are from a covered cloister running along the front of the edifice. In a niche at the one end is a statue of Edward the Sixth; and in another, at the opposite end, is a statue of Charles the Second-the respective founders of the two schools. The school-rooms occupy the lower story, and above them are the drawing school, three wards, or dormitories, for the boys, and a room called the boys' library.

A juvenile school is kept up at Hertford, to receive, and partially educate, the youngest boys; and to maintain and educate all the girls received into the establishment, since none of the latter are maintained

| in London. The buildings at Hertford are somewhat similar in object and arrangement to those in Newgatestreet, but smaller in size.

It will readily be conceived that an establishment so extensive as that of Christ's Hospital must necessarily require a well-arranged system of internal economy, and a large number of officers and servants. We will therefore briefly detail the principal subdivisions.

The President is always an alderman of the city of London, who generally holds the office during life: the office is rather honorary than one to which specific duties are attached; being principally to preside at the Courts of Management. The Treasurer is the most important officer. Not only does he manage all the funds of the charity, both in income and expenditure; but he is chairman of all committees, convener of special courts, and has a general supervision over the whole affairs of the charity. He sees that the orders and regulations are obeyed by the officers, who are accountable to him; makes periodical inquiries into the state of the lands and houses belonging to the hospital, and also into the state of the wardrobe and effects of the house. For all these duties he receives no fixed salary; but is accommodated with a handsome house within the precincts of the hospital. The Committee is a body of fifty governors, who fill up vacancies in their number by election from the whole body of governors. They sit once a month, to superintend the admission of children, and to conduct the general business of the house: they occasionally visit the hall, the bed-rooms, the infirmary, and the school-rooms.

The Chief-clerk is a kind of secretary, whose office is to attend the meetings of the committee, to open all letters addressed to the governors generally, to manage the correspondence of the hospital, to draw up leases and agreements with tenants, and keep a great number of account-books. The Receiver is an officer acting in concert with, but subordinate to, the treasurer; through his hands pass the various sums of money to and from the treasurer, and in order that he may be able to make the requisite payments, one thousand pounds are left in his hands, for which he is periodically accountable to the treasurer. Wardrobe-keeper has the charge of the wearing-apparel belonging to the children, and is expected to be prepared for examinatory visits at any time.

The

The Steward has the general custody of the children at all hours when they are not engaged at their studies: he attends them at all their meals: sees that they are punctual in all their allotted duties: receives all the provisions from the tradesmen, and sees that the bills agree with the articles sent in: superintends the division of the provisions among the boys, and sees that each one receives his proper share; and performs other duties connected with the domestic management of the hospital. He is assisted in some of his duties by three of the senior boys, under the name of Buttery-boys. There is a singular office filled by one boy, called a Chaff boy: when any little trinket belonging to one of the boys is lost, it is called chaff, and is exhibited by the chaff-boy, on the steward's table, at every meal-time, for inspection; and if, after a certain period, the owner does not claim it, it becomes the property of the finder if money has been in a similar way found, the owner is to share it equally with the finder. In the care of the boys during playhours, the steward is assisted by beadles, each of whom has a certain beat: they act on a sort of preventive police system, by which rude behaviour and accidents are prevented. As it is a fixed rule that no boy shall go beyond the precincts of the hospital, without express leave, a watch is kept at the gates, to

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