nence, which is believed to be partly of artificial formation. The most prevalent opinion is that it was built somewhere between the years 1088 and 1107, and the principal features in its construction, according to Mr. Wright, Mr. Majendie, and other writers, are as follows:

At the bottom, the walls are from eleven feet six inches to twelve feet six inches in thickness; and at the top from nine to ten feet. The eastern wall is thicker than any of the others, for the purpose, as is supposed, of being better able to resist the stormy east winds which are very prevalent in that part of the county. The form of the castle is square; the east and west sides measuring about fifty-five feet each, and the north and south about sixty-two feet each. The height from the ground to the top of the turrets is about a hundred and ten feet. There are at present only two of these turrets, but there were originally four, the two others, as well as the battlement and parapet walls of those now remaining, having long since been swept away. The castle was built of flints and stones, imbedded in fluid mortar, the outer surface being everywhere coated with squared and neatly dressed stones.

The original entrance to the castle is on the western side, from which a flight of stairs leads to the principal door of the first story. At the sides of this entrance are still to be seen the grooves where once were enclosed the ancient portcullis or temporary barrier so often used in ancient castles. A circular staircase is situated near the entrance, leading up to the higher stories, and down to the lower. There are five stories in the building, all constructed so as to leave them as secure as possible from external attack. The ground door is very massive, being without windows, and receiving no light but from loop-holes, just large enough to admit of offensive missiles being hurled from within. Each story has more window-light, and more decoration, than the floor beneath it, being more out of the way of danger; thus, the ground story, as we have said, has nothing but loop-holes, the next story has real windows, the third has double windows, by which a larger amount of air and light could be admitted, and the upper story has the largest and most decorated windows of all. The story next above the entrance story is the armoury, or hall of audience and ceremony, a noble apartment, thirty-eight feet by thirty-one, exclusive of the place occupied by a gallery which runs round it, and is twenty-eight feet high. This was the apartment in which the ancient barons used to receive the homage of their feudal tenants, and to receive their visitors in all the pomp and ceremony of the times. Near the loop-holes and windows of the different stories there are recesses within the wall, supposed to have been sleeping-places for the soldiers.

This castle was contained within a ballium, or inner court, of about three acres in extent; and within the ballium were several towers and other buildings, which were erected by one of the Earls of Oxford, soon after the battle of Bosworth field. These were mostly destroyed in the year 1592; and the whole building was brought to a ruinous condition during the first Dutch war, in 1666, to prevent the town being troubled with the prisoners taken in the sea engagements, and the soldiers that would have been appointed as their guard, both of whom would have proved unwelcome guests. Since that time the castle has remained pretty nearly in its present state.

We have mentioned the Earls of Oxford in the former part of this article; they were indeed connected with the Castle of Hedingham from a very early period. William the Conqueror gave the lord

ship of Hedingham to Alberic de Vere, ancestor of the Earls of Oxford. This Alberic was one of William's favourite generals, and received thirteen other lordships in Essex, besides that of Hedingham.

His son was Great Chamberlain of England during the time of Henry the First, and also one of the chief justices. The third Alberic espoused the cause of Queen Maud, and was rewarded with large grants, as well as honourable offices. During the reign of King John, Hedingham Castle, which was the baronial residence of the De Veres, was beseiged and taken in 1216, and afterwards taken and retaken two or three times. After the succession of three or four Earls of Oxford, the castle fell into the possession of Robert, Earl of Oxford, who in 1385 was created Marquis of Dublin, and afterwards Duke of Ireland, by Richard the Second. "These extraordinary instances of the king's favour," says Mr. Wright, were highly displeasing to many of the nobles, who considered this court favourite to be a person altogether unworthy of his or the nation's regard. He was, indeed, hated as one of those who, becoming his favourites, gave evil counsel to the king. The chronicles of those times inform us, that this nobleman was remarkable for nothing but lewdness and cowardice; to escape from his enemies, he fled into foreign countries, put away his duchess, who was one of the royal family, and married a servant girl."

The thirteenth Earl of Oxford was put into the possession of the castle, which had been taken away from his father for his adherence to the Lancaster faction. He, however, anxious to revenge on the Yorkists the injuries which his father had received from them, fought against them at the battle of Barnet, and being defeated was forced to flee. At a subsequent period he joined the Earl of Richmond, and was instrumental in gaining the battle of Bosworth field. As this battle enabled the Earl of Richmond to ascend the English throne, with the title of Henry the Seventh, the Earl of Oxford reaped a large share of honour, and was enabled to retire to Hedingham Castle in peaceful opulence, where he lived in great splendour. There is a story told by many of our historians, which places the cupidity and meanness of this sovereign towards his general in a striking light. The Earl of Oxford on one occasion gave a magnificent entertainment to the king. When the king departed, the earl's servants made a double row to line the passage through which the king was to pass,-all the servants being in splendid liveries. The king called the earl to him and said, "My lord, I have heard much of your hospitality, but I see it is greater than the speech: these handsome gentlemen and yeomen, which I see on both sides of me, are sure your menial servants." The earl smiled, and answered, "If it may please your grace, that were not for mine ease, they are most of them my retainers, that are come to do me service at such a time as this, and chiefly to see your grace." The king started a little, and said, "By my faith, my lord, I thank you for your good cheer, but I may not have my laws broken in my sight. My attorney must speak with you." There was a law in operation at that time respecting the number of retainers that might be kept by a baron, and it was to this law that the king alluded. The expression of disapprobation respecting the infringement of a law was not in itself bad; but under the circumstances of the case it was particularly ungracious, and was rendered doubly worse by the king consenting to receive a large sum of money to hush the matter up.

The castle continued, century after century, to remain in the possession of the De Veres, Earls of Oxford, until 1703, when Alberic, the last earl, died

without male issue. After a few subsequent changes, the castle was sold, in the early part of the last century, to the Ashurst family, from whom it has passed to two or three other families.

There are but few castles in England which, like Hedingham, can boast of having been in one family almost uninterruptedly for 600 years.

TRADESMEN'S TOKENS.

THE name of tokens has been given to a remarkable kind of coin, issued in bygone times by corporate bodies and by private tradesmen, in lieu of the current coin of the realm. The circumstances which gave rise to those tokens we may briefly detail.

Copper coinage was extremely scarce in the earlier portions of English history, and great embarrass ment consequently resulted to these who had dealings on a small scale; for there was no coin of smaller value than those made of silver, and those were inconveniently proportioned to the wants of retail dealers. It is supposed by some antiquaries, that the farthing originally meant a fourthing, and was one fourth of the silver penny, cut into quarters for that purpose. Stowe says that "the penny was wont to have a double cross, with a crest, in such sort that the same might be easily broken in the midst, or into four quarters," and it is supposed that the ancient country custom of breaking love-money, as a pledge of fidelity is elucidative of the ease with which the coins were broken in two. But still one-fourth of a penny was far too valuable a coin to serve the purposes of retail dealers, at a time when men worked for a penny a day; and this gave rise to numerous counterfeit coins, "known by the various names of maile, black maile, Nuremburg tokens, crokards, turneys, dotkins, galley-pieces, staldings, pollards, &c.:" these were fabricated principally by the Jews, and passed current among retail dealers, as a substitute for the government coin. Edward the Third, and succeeding sovereigns, issued severe edicts against this practice, but with without effect, for the exigencies of trade seem to have required the use of such coins.

King Edward the First appears, from the evidence of an old poem, which has obtained some notice among numismaticians, to have struck proper farthings; but these were still of silver, and were consequently of too high a value for humble tradersEdward did smite penny, halfpenny, farthing; The cross passes the bond of all, throughout the ring; The King's side, wherein his name was written. The crosse side, what city it was incoyned and smitten. To poor man, ne' to priest, the penny frayes nothing, Men give God aye the least; they feast him with a farthing. A thousand, two hundred, forescore years and mo', On this money men wondered, when it first began to goe. It appears there was no legal coin made of copper or brass until the time of King James; Queen Elizabeth contemplated such a coinage, but it was not put into operation during her reign. "The use of private tokens, for money, which were stamped by inferior tradesmen, such as grocers, vintners, chandlers, alehouse keepers, &c. was at this time (1572-3) grown to such excess as to be the subject of frequent complaints. They were made of lead, tin, latten, and even of leather. Of these base materials were formed farthings and halfpence, to the great derogation of princely honour and dignity, and at great loss to the poor, since they were only to be repaid to the same shop from whence they where first received. Of this abuse the queen was very sensible, as also that there was a great want of farthings and halfpence. To remedy these wants and disorders; proposals were made to her for coining farthings.and

halfpence of base silver, seven ounces, sixteen grains, fine; and four ounces, thirteen pennyweights, eight grains, alloy, the weight six grains and twelve gra us; but the queen would by no means give ear to embasing the coins again*."

It was estimated by Sir Robert Cotton that in and about London there were, shortly before the introduction of legal farthings, no fewer than three thousand retailers of food and small wares, who used leaden or copper tokens, made at their own expense, in an annual quantity, to the value of 57. sterling each; of which not one tenth part remained at the year's end. In the cities of Bristol, Oxford, Worcester, and numerous others, the same plan was adopted, not only by private individuals, but by corporate bodies likewise. The principle on which these tokens were issued was this:-that the person who issued them would at any time receive them back, at the same value which he issued them; so that as long as a person's commercial reputation was good, his tokens were deemed safe coin, although not a legal tender. Suppose that A, a baker, issued tokens, which he paid to B, a corn-dealer; that the latter paid them to C, a farmer, and so on: if the last holder paid these coins back to A again, they would be received by him at their original value. These tokens were therefore what we may perhaps term metallic bills of exchange for very small sums.

It was to give something like a legal sanction to small coins, that an issue of royal farthing tokens was made on the 19th of May, 1613. These were not strictly farthings, as we now understand the word, because the public were not obliged to use them, nor to discontinue the use of their own tokens; they were merely farthing tokens, which the holders could exchange for other coin when they pleased, and in which government payment of small fractional sums were made These tokens were not very favourably received; but they continued to be used, together with tradesmen's tokens, throughout the reign of James the First, the commonwealth, Charles the First, and Charles the Second, down to the year 1672; when the king's copper coinage, superseding private mints, became duly authorized, and has been continued ever since. From that time tradesmen's tokens gradually fell into disuse, and have not since been resumed, except for a short period about forty years ago, when, probably owing to some scarcity in the legal copper coinage, various substitutes, under the names of provincial coins and pocket-pieces, were struck. These, however, lasted but for a short time; and tokens are now either disregarded altogether, or are treasured by the medallist and antiquarian.

The subject of these tokens furnishes a lesson, that however trifling a matter may appear at first sight, a judicious thinker will succeed in drawing some useful information. Pilkington has spoken of these tradesmen's tokens as being utterly unworthy a moment's notice from any one, and even carries his remarks to a silly extent by observing:-"I will venture to say that their workmanship is always utterly contemptible, and that not one purpose of taste, information, or curiosity, can be drawn from them. It needs hardly be added that they are recommended to the supreme scorn of the reader, who may justly regard the studying or collecting of them, along with the admiration of counters, as beneath any man of taste."

Now it has recently been shown that the above remark is as untrue as it is sweeping. In a very clever paper in the Numismatic Journal for 1836, a writer gives some curious views of the state of * RUDING'S Annals of the Coina e.

history of the family of each individual, as far as can be now done, observes:-" We have now examined all these tokens in detail, and from the researches thus carried on, it follows, that in no instance has any one of the fourteen individuals who formed the elite, or substantial residents, in 1670, now a representative in the town of Bedford; besides which, in tracing their career, the disappearance of the Abbis, Elton, Fenn, Easton, Paradine and other co-citizen families, is also abundantly proved."

society, two hundred years ago, in the town of Bedford, which he has been able to arrive at solely through the means of several tradesmen's tokens, struck and issued by persons living at that time in Bedford. He has been able to determine that families, which must at that time have been of respectable standing, are not only now unknown in Bedford, but that the very names are lost, and has been further able to gather many interesting particulars, of which it is probable there is no other evidence whatever existing. The writer, after speaking of the value of medals for the elucidation of history, says:

The present period is remarkably distinguished for the industry with which intelligent men are endeavouring to collect statistical information respecting the trading, educational, and domestic state of society in past and present times; and Pilkington little thought, when he wrote the passage to which reference has been made, that such humble articles as the tradesmen's tokens of two hundred years old, would assist in such inquiries. The fact is, however, that their very age is one of the points which render them valuable; and another is, that they carry us in imagination to the counter of the tradesmen, and show us in some degree the nature of his dealings.

We resolved to reduce that system to a more confined object, by calling in the aid of tradesmen's tokens. For this purpose, besides our own collection, we examined those of some friends, and moreover had access to all those in the possession of the well known Mr. Matthew Young, of London, which were the fruits of many years collecting by the late Mr. Tyssen. These steps soon opened a new mine in a statistical light, for in the examination of pieces of money struck in the different towns and villages of Bedfordshire, it would appear that some places, now too inconsiderable to support more than a mere huckster's hovel, were formerly the locale of substantial tradesmen, and that the borough of Bedford has undergone a total change of population since the year 1672, the era when tokens were extinguished.

The author of the Notitie Luda gives representations of fourteen tokens, current in the town of Louth in the seventeenth century. These tokens were all of copper, and valued either at a halfpenny or a farthing. From these specimens we have selected three, to illustrate the subject of the present

article.

The writer of the paper here alluded to has in his possession fourteen tradesmen's tokens, struck by an equal number of persons in the town of Bedford, between the years 1634 and 1668, and therefore nearly contemporaneous. Now it is known that the town was at a very low ebb at that period, the population not exceeding fifteen hundred persons. The importance which the town had possessed in feudal days was passed away, and any importance arising from commerce and manufactures had not yet arisen. The town consisted of little more than what is now called the High Street; and, coupling this circumstance with the very small number of inhabitants, it has been inferred that these fourteen issuers of their own coins or tokens must have included a large portion of the most substantial tradesmen of the town, especially as it was one of the corporate customs, that "no freeman of the borough, being either a freeman born, or any other way a freeman, by service as an apprentice, or by admittance, or allowance of redemption, or otherwise, shall keep any shop, or use any trade, art, or mystery within this town." The privilege of so doing was reserved for burgesses.

THE aberrations of opinion prove only that the most bold, not the most virtuous, press forward to announce their principles. These principles cannot annihilate that secret and universal opinion, that voice of conscience, without which the moral world would have presented only a chaos. Consult those men who have been instructed by the lessons of religion, and of wisdom and experience; consult those who you would choose to resemble, and their first precept will be that you descend into yourself. If we interrogate conscience in good faith, she will enlighten us. She makes herself heard in the tumult of our vices, even against our will.-DRUPY

Now a diligent inquiry has shown that the families to which these fourteen individuals belonged are no longer known in Bedford. Each token contains the name, arms, &c., of the issuer, and from these data the inquiries proceeded, One medal was struck by Henry Fitzhugh, dated 1655, a token for the value of a farthing. Another was by John Paulin, a grocer, 1654: a grocer in those days meant a dealer in coffee, sugar, hardware, gingerbread, bobbins, tapes, laces, haberdashery, candles, soap, bacon, and a most multifarious collection of articles, such as are now to be met with in what are called chandlers' shops: tea was at that time three guineas per pound, and was therefore, as may be supposed, not met with at a country grocer's. A third token is by Robert Fitzhugh, 1654, one farthing. A fourth, Thomas Pare, grocer, 1656, one farthing. A fifth, William Faldo, also a grocer, 1659. Another was issued by one Hugh Hotten in 1666 he seems to have been an ironmonger, for on the token is stamped a frying-pan, as his symbol; and on the reverse are the words "his halfpenny." So on of the others: each token appears to have been issued by some tradesmen "well to do" in the world; and the writer, after giving a slight sketch of the

A GERMAN philosopher has said, I know only two beautiful things in the universe; the starry heaven above our heads, and the sentiment of duty in our hearts..

LONDON:

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The manufactures of Cephalonia are few, chiefly wine and oil. There are two celebrated manufactures of liqueurs, much esteemed all over the Mediterranean, owing their high flavour to the aromatic plants with which the island abounds. They export a small quantity of brandy, of native manufacture. They also manufacture coarse cloths and nankeens, and a small quantity of silk. They make a coarse carpeting of goats' hair and wool, but not to any great extent; as well as blankets.

The town of Argostoli, according to Dr. Hennen, consists of two main streets which run north and south, and a number of cross streets and lanes. The principal street, or that next the water, is about one mile and a quarter long, and twenty feet wide; the other street is not nearly so long. The town is open and increases rapidly in size; it is about three miles in circumference. The streets are all very narrow, but tolerably well paved. The houses are generally two stories high, fronting the north-east. They are built of stone, cemented with lime and terra rosa, and covered with tiles. The average size of the rooms is about fourteen feet square, and they are very low. The ceilings are unplastered; but the floors are generally of wood; the windows are glazed, but in a loose manner, and without putty. In order that the houses may be enabled to withstand the shocks of an earthquake, they have frequently iron clamps in various parts of the walls. A little quadrangle occupies the centre of the town, where the markets are held: this has been flagged with tomb-stones, brought from the ruins of Samos. The bridge of Trapano, which crosses the gulf at the southern extremity of Argostoli, affords an excellent road between the town and country, by which the communication is shortened four or five miles, and an almost impracticable mountain-road round the lake avoided to the peasants, who have to convey their goods to the market in the city. The walls of the bridge are of cut limestone, and instead of arches, strong planks of oak are thrown across, connecting the pier horizontally.

At Argostoli is a museum, now the property of a private family. There are also a number of cafés, where the male inhabitants resort. Each man brings his pipe and tobacco, and takes coffee whilst he is smoking. At five o'clock in the afternoon the company generally assemble, remaining there until eight, at which time they retire home to sup. When that meal is finished, they adjourn again to the café, either joining with others in a game of cards, or else smoking and conversing. It is in these places where a stranger acquires a better idea of the natives than even at their houses. The inhabitants of Cephalonia are said to be much more active than those of Corfu; they are much more enterprising, especially in their mercantile and nautical affairs.

The other town of which we have spoken, Lixuri, bears considerable resemblance to Argostoli: it is the principal depôt for wine and currants In the immediate vicinity of Argostoli and Lixuri there are some tolerable modern roads; but in the interior they have been very bad, but are now rapidly improving: there are scarcely any cross-roads. The communication between the inland villages is by footpaths along the edges of ravines. All the land carriage of the country is by means of mules and

When Mr. Kendrick wrote, in 1822, the tenure of land in Cephalonia was, for the most part, annual. The generality of the landed proprietors, however, agreed with the vassals, who cultivated the estate for a certain share of the profit, for money did not pass between them. By these means the peasant was ruined if a bad season occurred; for not having a capital at hand, on which to exist, he was obliged to sell his share at an under-price, and often to borrow money at a high interest. If the market were high, the merchant would not purchase; for the islands in the Archipelago were sure to take advantage, and pour their produce into the market at a lower rate: the peasant was therefore obliged to sell at an equal rate, or not at all: thus earning for his year's labour perhaps threepence per diem. Mr. Kendrick was witness to the bad effect of this mode of dealing between landlord and cultivator, by which the latter has produce, instead of money, for his labour. A peasant's father had died, and the priests refused to bury the dead body before the man had given the church six wax candles, that cost three shillings each. This demand, and some other unavoidable expenses, obliged him to sell, at 3s. 4d. per barrel, wine which three months afterwards would have brought 10s. per barrel. Many improvements in this part of the commercial arrangements of the island have taken place, through the exertions of the successive Lord High Commissioners sent out from England.

Catacombs have been discovered by the Venetians, French, and British, to the south-west of Argostoli, in which were found the remains of ancient warriors completely clad in their war dresses, the bones crumbling into dust on the slightest pressure. The Venetians opened eight catacombs in 1647, and sent the antiquities contained in them to Venice. There are many other memorials of past ages to be seen on various parts of the island.

At about five or six miles distant from Argostoli lies the citadel or castle of St. George, situated on the summit of a hill of considerable height, which constitutes the southern termination of the range of hills before alluded to. The wall of this castle encloses about three acres of land. A gentle declivity from the castle leads to a tolerably well-built village, which occupies the eastern extremity of the hill. It appears to have contained a considerable number of inhabitants at one time, but at present many of the houses are in ruins.

Indian corn bread is baked by the natives of Cephalonia in small ovens, heated by the prunings of their vines, and of this they consume about two pounds and a half daily, on an average of each person, besides vegetable food. They very seldom use animal food; but indulge in an almost incredible quantity of grapes. Dr. Hennen states that in time of vintage they devour, on an average, twelve pounds of the ripe fruit daily, and without producing any disagreeable consequences: on the contrary, it seems to fatten them.

The population of Cephalonia amounts to about