CHAPTER XV. PREPOSITIONS. 314. PREPOSITIONS are so named because they were originally prefixed to the verb, in order to modify its meaning. They express (1) the relations of space, (2) other relations derived from those of space, and marked in some languages by case-endings. Prepositions are either simple or compound. I. Simple Prepositions. In (O.E. in) is connected with on, an, a, from a demonstrative stem a + na. Before a dental n shows a tendency to disappear, as tooth tonth. So in our dramatists and O. E. writers we find i'the in the. At (O.E. at) also contains the stem a (cp. Sanskrit á-dhi, Lat. ad; -dhi Gr. -01). Of (O.E. of, af, af; Goth. af, from; Lat. ab, Gr. dπó, Sansk. apa). By, O.F. bi (cp. Sansk. a-bhi, of which the suffix -bhi = Gr. -pı, Lat. -bi; a nasalized form of a-bhi is found in Gr. dupí, Lat. amb-, O.Sax. umbi, O.E. umbe, embe, ymbe, um-, Ger. um-). For (O.E. for, Goth. faúr, O.N. fyr, fyrir); a-fore (O.E. onforan). From (O.E. fram, from; fra, fro; O.N. frá). The m is a superlative suffix (cp. Sanskrit para-ma-s, from parâ, cognate with Eng. fore (O.E. fore). The same root is seen in for-th, fur-ther, far. Lat. pro. On (O.Sax. an; O.Fris. an, &; O.N. &; Cp. Sansk. pra, Gr. #ρó, Goth. ana), up-ON. Up (O.E. up), formed from a stem u+pa. With (O.E. with, wither, from, against). We have a more original form in O.E., viz. mid, with; Goth. mith, Sansk. mithas, Gr. μerd, from a demonstrative stem ma. Wither (or with) is a comparative form, in which m is replaced by w (cp. Goth. withra). To (O.E. to). It is often used in the sense of "for," as to frend= "for friend" (Spenser), to wife, &c. Too (adv.) is another form of the same word. II. Compound Prepositions. (1) Comparatives :— After (O.E. af-ter), a comparative formed from of; see Comparison of Adjectives. We have the same root in aft, eft, abaft, &c. Over (O.E. ofer) is a comparative connected with up, and with the compound above (O.E. a-b-ufan); cp. Sansk. upari, Gr. væép, Lat. super; O.E. ufera, higher. Under (O.E. un-der, Goth. un-dar, Sansk. an-tar, Lat. in-ter) contains the root in (see p. 203), with the comparative suffix -ther (-der). Through (O.E. thur-h, O.Sax. thur-ah, Goth. thair-h, Ger. dur-ch; from root târ, to go beyond; cp. Lat. tra-ns, Sansk. tîras, across). Thorough is merely another form of through. (2) Prepositions compounded with prepositions: into (O.E. intill), upon, beneath, underneath, afar, before, behind, beyond, within, without, throughout [O.E. foreby, at-fore, on-foran (= afore), tofore]. But (= O.E. butan = be-utan) originally signified be out. In provincial English it signifies without. Above = a (on) + be + ove (O.E. bufan = be-ufan). and over, § 312, p. 197. About = a + be + out (O.E. &butan = &-be-utan). See up Among, amongst (O.E. ge-mang, on gemong; later forms, amonges, amang). Unto in O.E. often until; unt = Goth. unde, to; O.Fris. ont, to; O.Sax. unt, unte; O.E. ôth = until. Until unt + till. (3) Prepositions formed from substantives : Again, against, over against (O.E. on-gean, agean; to-gegness, against; later forms, onZanes, aZenes, ayens; cp. Ger. ent-gegen). Other prepositions of this class are, instead of, in behalf of, by dint of, by way of, for the sake of; abroad, abreast, atop, ahead, astride, adown, across. (4) Adjective prepositions :- Ere (O.E. a-r), before, is a comparative of the root &. See § 233, p. 146. Or (O.E. ar) is another form of the same word. Till (O.E. til, good; Goth. gatils, useful; O.N. til, to). Till first makes its appearance as a preposition in the northern dialect. It occurs in the Durham Gospels (eleventh century). In O.E. we find intil = into. To-ward, towards (O. E. tô-weard, tô-weardes). In O.E. we find these elements separated. Cp. "Thy thoughts which are to us ward."-Psalm xl. 5. Other adverbs of this kind are afterward, afterwards, upward, froward = away from. "Give ear to my suit, Lord; fromward hide not thy face."-Paraphrase of Psalm lv. by Earl of Surrey. Along, alongst (O.E. andlang, ondlang, endelong, endlonges, an long, on longe, alonges, through, along). It is often used for lengthwise, and is opposed to athwart or across. "The dores were alle of ademauntz eterne Iclenched overthwart and endelong."-CHAUCER, Knightes Tale. "Muche lond he him 3ef an long thare sea."-La3. 138. There is another along (O.E. ge-lang) altogether different from this, in the sense of "on account (of)." "All this is 'long of you."-Coriol. v. 4. "All along of the accursed gold."-Fortunes of Nigel. "On me is nought alonge thin yvel fare." CHAUCER, Tr. and Cr. ii. 1. 1000. "Vor one is al mi lif ilong."-O.E. Hom., First Series, p. 197. Amid, amidst (O.E. on-middan, on-middum; later forms, amidde, amiddes; from the adjective midd, as in middle, mid-most). In the midst is a compound like O.E. in the myddes of; cp. O.E. tô-middes === amidst. Other prepositions of this kind are, around, a-slant, a-skaunt, be-low, be-twixt (O.E. betweoh-s, be-tweor, from twi, two), between (O.E. be-tweonum, betwynan), atween, atwixt. An-ent is O.E. on-efn, on-emn, near, toward (later forms, onefen-t, anent, anentes, anens, anence). Athwart, over-thwart, thwart (O.E. thwar, on thweorh; O.N. thwert). Fast by (O.E. on fæst, near); cp. hardby, forby. Since (O.E. siththan ; later forms, siththe, sithe, sin, sen; sithens, sithence, sinnes, sins1). O.E. no but, not but = only. (5) Verbal prepositions : The following prepositions arise out of a participial construction : notwithstanding, owing to, outtaken (now replaced by except), &c. "Ther is non, outtaken hem (= iis exceptis)."-WICKLIFFE, Mark xii. 32. 315. III. Prepositions of Romance Origin. (1) Uncompounded :—per, versus, sans (= Lat. sine). (2) Compounded:-(a) Substantive-across, viâ, because, apropos of, by means of, by reason of, by virtue of, in accordance with, in addition to, in case of, in comparison to, in compliance with, in consequence of, in defiance of, in spite of, in favour of, in front of, in lieu of, in opposition to, in the point of, in quest of, with regard to, in reply to, with reference to, in respect of, in search of, on account of, on the plea of, with a view to. (b) Adjective-agreeably to, exclusive of, inclusive of, maugre, minus, previous to, relatively to, around, round, round about. (c) Verbal, active-during, pending, according to, barring, bating, concerning, considering, excepting, facing, including, passing, regarding, respecting, aiding, tending, touching; (2) passive :— except, excepted, past, save." Sith is an adjective = O.E. sith, late; siththan later than, afterwards. The root is sinth; cp. Goth. sinth, a way. 2 Many of these have arisen out of the old dative (absolute) construction. CHAPTER XVI. CONJUNCTIONS. 316. CONJUNCTIONS join sentences and co-ordinate terms. According to meaning, they are divided into Co-ordinate, joining independent prepositions: (a) copulative, as and, also, &c.; (b) disjunctive, as or, else, &c.; (c) adversative, as but, yet, &c.; (d) illative, as for, therefore, hence. Sub-ordinate, joining a dependent clause to a principal sentence: (a) those used in joining substantive clauses to the principal sentence, as that, whether; (b) those introducing an adverbial clause, marking (1) time-when, while, until; (2) reason, cause-because, for, since; (3) condition-if, unless, except; (4) purpose, end—that, so, lest. 317. According to their origin, conjunctions may be divided intopronominal, numeral, adverbial, substantive, prepositional, verbal, compound. (1) Pronominal: And (O.Sax. endi, O. H. Ger. anti, from the stem ana). An if (Goth. an, O.E. ono). It is sometimes written ans and frequently joined to if. Eke = also (O.E. ec), hence, how, so, also, as, just as, as far as, in so far as, whereas, lest, then, than,1 thence, no sooner than, though, although, therefore, that, yea, nay, what. and (O.E. what), whereupon, whence, whether, either, neither, what. or, nor.3 (2) Numeral :—both, first, secondly, &c. 'We occasionally find, as in Scotch, or and nor instead of than. |