behaviour, he tells me, is not in accord with any known form. He says: "It is large, 10 to 15 μ long, and shows a strong tendency in fluid cultures to grow into filaments, but I have not observed any branching." It is gram-positive, stains with difficulty, and "its most characteristic feature is a brilliant lemon yellow growth on auxietic agar." I should like to refer to one other recent experience. In June 26-28, 1912, I prepared and sterilised six tubes containing a yellow solution composed of 3 drops of sodium silicate and 8 drops of liquor ferri pernetratis to the ounce of water. Five of these tubes were opened and their contents examined after periods ranging from six to nine months, and in each embryo Torulæ and other torula-like bodies, together with a few very minute mycelia of indeterminate types, are recorded by my notes to have been found. The sixth tube (No. 416) had been most of the time in the incubator, and was not opened till August 2 of this year-that is, more than two years after its preparation. Some previous experiences induced me to make such a trial. On opening the tube, in which there was only a very small amount of deposit, I obtained the whole of it in two dips with a pipette (the centrifuge used afterwards showed only a few shreds, granules, and minute glass splinters). The contents of the dips revealed many of the same torulalike bodies as had been found in the other tubes, and also "four masses of minute mycelium issuing from aggregates of minute spherical and ovoidal germs, together with granular matter, in part seemingly composed of typical cocci and short bacilli." With the Moulds, as shown in Fig. 10, A and B, there were masses of spherical spores with a central dot in each, together with small heads of fructification of Penicillium type bearing similar acrospores. From a very similar solution contained in four other tubes, prepared on May 17-19, 1912, in three, which were opened at periods varying from seven to ten months, the spores and mycelium of a mould of Oospora type were found by myself and others. The fourth tube was kept for nearly seventeen months Many critics of my tube experiments have been incredulous either as to the organisms found in the tubes being really organisms, or else as to their being living and actually engendered within them. They found it difficult to reconcile with ordinarily entertained notions the idea that organisms like bacteria and Torulæ, to say nothing of Moulds, could be products of so-called spontaneous generation." Let such critics spend two or three weeks only in examining the developmental changes in the Zooglœeas formed in a hay scum, and see how much many other cherished preconceptions will be upset. Are they ever likely to do it? Well, let them bear in mind that three bacteriologists to whom I have demonstrated these changes were unable to doubt that the Fungus-germs, the Monads, and the Amœbæ were actually derived from the ultimate products of segmentation; and, further, that they were unable to suggest "infection" as an hypothesis that could possibly account for the many hundreds of similar changes taking place simultaneously in each fragment containing the different sets of Zoogloa. When they have seen similar results themselves, what attitude can the critics take? If they see animal products, such as Monads and Amoebæ, taking origin from aggregates of primordial vegetal units like bacteria, and are compelled to recognise that such Monads, altogether independently of any possible inheritance, are enabled to throw out flagella, to come into being provided with a nucleus, and to develop actively functioning contractile vacuoles, will they still adhere to all their preconceptions, or will they rather admit their previous ignorance of nature's potency in this as well as in many other directions? In a recent able article on "Science and the Limits of Belief," Sir Ray Lankester dwells very forcibly upon the importance of knowledge based securely on experimental demonstration and the examination of actual things." As he says: "It is precisely by the refusal to discuss possibilities, and by being at the same time willing and anxious to receive and verify tangible demonstration of a fact, however improbable it may appear," that all progress in science has ever been made. With this I absolutely agree; and can only trust that critics generally will adopt a like opinion. Archebiosis is a process that always takes place beyond our ken, seeing that it must begin with mere molecular collocations, gradually going on to the formation of particles of an ultra-microscopic order. And the only explanation that seems possible of the growth of such particles into organisms like those found in the tubes, as well as of the appearance of the heterogenetic products that we have seen proceeding from Zooglœal segments, is to fall back upon an explanation which is generally admitted to account for all the known forms of crystalline matter. Molecular constitution, combined with the influence of the environment, is what we have to appeal to there; and, as Herbert Spencer over and over again insisted, the forms and structures of organisms, under the influence 4 As shown by Fig. 4, in NATURE for January 22, 1914. 5 In the R. P. A. Annual for 1915 (recently published of what he termed "organic polarity," must be dependent upon like causes. In accounting for the lower forms of living matter, therefore, we may suppose, as he says, that their "organic molecules of each kind, no matter how complex, have a form of equilibrium in which, when they aggregate, their complex forces are balanced." H. CHARLTON BASTIAN. SMITHSONIAN GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS. DURING the past year, the Smithsonian Institu tion was represented in the field by nineteen parties and individuals engaged in the collection of data relative to astrophysics, geology, biology, and anthropology, besides nine representatives of the Bureau of American Ethnology, who secured information relative to the American Indian. While most of the exploration occurred in the United States, considerable work was carried on in Canada, the West Indies, Peru, Switzerland, Borneo, Cashmere, Egypt, Greece, and Italy. A recent publication of the institution describing the various explorations, includes a report on the Palæontological field-work of the secretary, Dr. C. D. Walcott, in the Canadian Rockies, near the Robson Peak district in British Columbia and Alberta, and in Field, British Columbia. The mountainous scenery in the former region is quite alpine in appearance, including snow-capped and glacier-covered peaks which tower 7500 to 9800 ft. above Lake Kinney, itself some 3000 ft. above sea-level. On this trip Dr. Walcott's party approached from the west in order to study the invertebrate fossils in this section, which he considers one of the finest in the world. At the base of the mountain at Lake Kinney, there exist fossil beds, 4000 ft. or more in thickness, where a number of important ancient Cambrian fossil fauna were secured, as well as many examples of the species found in 1912. At Field, work was carried on in the great Cambrian fossil quarry, where, after blasting out the solid beds to a depth of 22 ft., a fine collection for the U.S. National Museum was secured. Another geological research party was also in the field for fossils, but, instead of the very early forms of life sought by Dr. Walcott, this second party, under the direction of Mr. J. W. Gidley, was in search of fossil mammals from a later epoch. In this connection, the party again excavated in the Pleistocene cave deposit near Cumberland, Maryland, discovered in 1912, and found many new forms of mammals, and more complete remains of several species represented in the first collection solely by jaw fragments. The collection now numbers about 300 specimens, which represent forty or more distinct types of hitherto undescribed animals, many of which are now extinct, including the bear, peccary, wolverine, badger, martin, porcupine, woodchuck, dog and the American eland-like antelope. Other specimens found in less complete form were the mastodon, tapir, horse, and beaver, besides several smaller rodents, shrews, and bats. All these different animal remains occur intermingled and comparatively thickly scattered through the deposits of this ancient limestone cave, which was exposed by a cut made by the Western Maryland Railroad, and reported to the museum by Mr. Armbruster. Mr. Gidley is pursuing his studies in identifying these different remains, and expects to continue his excavations from time to time. Mr. C. W. Gilmore, of the National Museum, con6"Principles of Biology" (revised edition, 1898), vol. i., Appendix D, P. 704. ducted explorations in the north-western part of Montana, where some vertebrate fossil bones were discovered by a member of the Geological Survey in 1912. A total of more than 500 separate fossil bones was collected, among them a nearly complete skeleton of a new Ceratopsian or horned dinosaur, the smallest known of the great horned reptiles, and the first to be found having a complete articulated tail and hindfoot. Another find was a partial skeleton of the new Trachodont or duck-billed dinosaur, recently described from specimens obtained in Canada. Dr. R. S. Bassler spent some time in the Appalachian Valley of Maryland studying the post-Palæozoic geologic history of the region as indicated by the present surface conditions, under the auspices of the U.S. National Museum, and the Maryland Geological Survey. Another field research party which concerned the collection of fossils was maintained in Illinois by Mr. F. Springer, in connection with the preparation of his monograph on the fossil crinoidea, and to add to the museum collections of these fossil invertebrate marine animals. The field-work was undertaken in co-operation with the geological work of the State of Illinois, in order that the horizons from which these fossils were taken might be definitely determined. This resulted in securing several large cases of material, among which were several very large slabs containing numbers of specimens. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL DR. E. G. FEARNSIDES, Miss F. M. G. Micklethwait, and Dr. E. P. Poulton have been elected to Beit Memorial Fellowships for Medical Research. Each fellowship is of the annual value of 250l. THE third annual conference of educational associations will be held from January 4 to January 9, 1915, at the University of London, South Kensington. The inaugural address on the principles of educational science will be given by Bishop Welldon. In addition to the addresses and discussions in connection with the meetings of the Geographical Association, to which attention was directed in our issue of last week, mention may be made of the following contributions to the conference. At the meeting of the Froebel Society on January 4 Prof. J. J. Findlay On will speak on educative toys and apparatus. January 5 the Rev. Canon Masterman's presidential address to the Teachers' Guild will be on education for national service. The Provisional Committee for the Development of Regional Survey will meet on January 6, and a number of speeches will be delivered on regional survey in relation to education. During the evening of this date the School Nature Study Union will meet, and Mr. E. E. Unwin will speak on nature-study and the teacher. On January 8 the Science Teachers' Association holds its meeting, and Miss Muriel Robertson will speak on some sleeping sickness problems in Uganda; and on the same day Dr. G. R. Parkin will address the Association of Assistant-mistresses on the responsibilities of Empire. THE annual Convocation of the Allahabad University for conferring degrees was held in November. The Chancellor, Sir James Meston, delivered an address which is reported in the issue of the Pioneer Mail for November 20. Towards the end of his remarks he said:" My sole aim is the greater efficiency of our University. Now there are two kinds of efficiency. One kind, wrongly so called, seeks for a mechanical perfection, an official symmetry, a standardising of work and ideals with little thought for human weakness and human reticences. Such is the Teutonic form of efficiency, against which the armies of England and India are battling in Europe at this moment. The efficiency which we want in the India of to-day is of a different and a better type. It seeks for a steady improvement of the conditions which stimulate self-development; it does not despise the feelings and frailties of mankind; and it moves through the portals of conviction towards the goal of the ideal. It is in this sense that efficiency must ever be the rally-cry of our University. We can never stand still but must always move forward, striving for the best, with a divine discontent for all the spurious imitations and the makeshifts which we may be asked to accept in its place. In the ordinary life of the world we have constantly to endure the second best or something still poorer, in art, in music, in literature, in our companionships. But let us not foist the second best, if we can help it, on our students. The temptations to be content with it will assail them soon enough. Be it our part to give them the best we can command, and to help them to enjoy and desire it. In this way shall we raise the true efficiency of our University and ensure for our graduates their proper place in the van of Indian progress." SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Literary and Philosophical Society, December 1.-Mr. F. Nicholson, president, in the chair.-C. H. Lander : Graphical determination of the stresses in the main spars of monoplanes. One of the most complex problems connected with the design of beams continuous over several supports is presented by the main spars of monoplanes. The stresses are made up of direct compressions and those due to bending moments, the determinations of the latter being most complicated. The lift of a wing surface for small angles increases with the angle of incidence and with the square of the velocity: at a speed of about 60 miles per hour the lift of a certain type of curved wing varies from 5 lb. at 4° up to a maximum of 11.7 lb. at 17°; at 120 miles per hour these lifts would be four times as great. Most monoplanes are designed for a load of 0.007V2lb. per square foot, V being the designed speed in feet per second. From were not only drawn out and deeply sunken, but the opposed sides of the depression were congenitally united. When the roots are exposed by the splitting process at the groove they stand exogenously on the surface. This mode of interpreting the morphology of Isoëtes proves satisfactory when applied either to the explanation of the growth of the stock itself or in comparisons with Lepidodendreæ and Pleuromeia. The rhizophoric region of the stock of Isoëtes is regarded as the structure in existing plants most closely comparable to the stigmarian base of the Lepidodendreæ. December 15.-Mr. F. Nicholson, president, in the chair.-F. R. Lankshear: Quantitative absorption spectra. Part ii.-A new ultra-violet photometer. A new ultra-violet photometer was described, in which, by a system of condensers and prisms, two equal beams of light are obtained. One beam passes through the absorbing liquid and the other through a central adjustable sector. Corrections due to the intermittent nature of light thus become unnecessary.-W. C. Jenkins and E. L. Rhead: Some notes on aerolites the Appley Bridge aerolite of October 13, 1914. A summary of observations made on the mass found at Appley Bridge, and the results of preliminary analyses of its chemical composition. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, December 7.-M. P. Appell in the chair.-Haton de la Goupillière: A property of arithmetical progressions.-J. Bosler and H. G. Block: Observations of the eclipse of the sun of August 21, 1914, made at Strömsund (Sweden) by the expedition from Meudon Observatory. The main object of the expedition was to photograph the spectrum of the corona in the whole visible field, including the red, and, if possible, obtain some indications of its velocity of rotation. The weather conditions proved extremely favourable. The results of the observations are I summarised on p. 460.-M. Skossarewsky: The electrolytic dissociation of acetylene and its metallic derivatives. The electrolytic dissociation of acetylene and its monosodium derivative has been proved by measurements of conductivity in solution in liquid ammonia. The dissociation increases with the dilution of the solution. The temperature coefficient of the specific conductivity is about 2 per cent. for 1° C., and is nearly independent of the concentration.-M. Tiffenau Molecular transposition in the cyclohexane series: passage to the cyclopentane series. Orthoiodo-hydroxycyclohexane, treated with silver nitrate, gives the aldehyde of cyclopentanecarboxylic acid. The removal of hydriodic acid causes the opening of the ring, and passing from a cyclohexane to a cyclopentane derivative. Homologues of the cyclohexane alcohol behave in a similar manner. -Marcel Le Brazidec: Molecular transposition in the phenylcyclohexane series: migration of a phenyl group without passage to the cyclopentane series. Iodophenylcyclohexanol, on elimination of hydriodic acid with silver nitrate gives phenylcyclohexanone, a cyclopentane derivative not being formed.-C. Grossmann: The uranium minerals of Fiadanana, Madagascar. Externally the mineral resembles euxenite and con this the loading on the spar may be determined for different angles. The method of solution of the stresses then varies according to the manner in which the lift wires are attached to the spar. The direct application of Claxton Fidler's method of solution of continuous beams may be used when the lift wires are attached to the spar at the neutral axis. When these wires are attached at the lower side of the spar, the longitudinal moments induced may be assumed and their diagrams plotted as though the spars were discontinuous over the points of support, characteristic points obtained, and the true base line drawn by Fidler's method. A modification of Fidler's method can also be used in the case of wires badly adjusted or injured.-Prof. W. H. Lang: Studies in the morphology of Isoëtes. Pt. I.—The general morphology of the stock of Isoëtes. The external form and gross anatomy of the two-lobed stock of Isoëtestains from 12 to 40 per cent. of Ur,O,. The mineral lacustris is described. The upper portion of the stock corresponds to the shoot, the lower portion behaves as a downwardly growing rhizophore, on which roots arise in acropetal succession. The position of the deeply-seated growing line of the rhizophoric region corresponds to that of the secondary meristem of the base of the stem, but its mode of growth is different. The growth proceeds, and the roots are brought to the surface, as if the lower apex with the higher proportion of uranium possesses a radio-activity nearly double that of pure black uranium oxide, and may prove a possible source of radium compounds.-Maurice Lugeon: Some consequences of the presence of crystalline sheets underlying the Niesen zone (Switzerland).--Fernand Guéguen: The alteration termed “piqûre” of sail and tent canvas. The loss of strength of canvas in certain spots after exposure to the open air is shown to be due to the development in the tissue of various moulds. It does not seem to be due to accidental contamination of the fabric, but is caused by the development, under the influence of moist heat, of filaments of mould present in the new material. Sterilisation by steam is suggested as the most practical means of dealing with the trouble. BOOKS RECEIVED. Electrical Engineering in India. By J. W. Meares. Pp. xxxvi+517. (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co.; London: W. Thacker and Co.) 15s. Preparations and Exercises in Inorganic Chemistry. By W. Lowson. Pp. vii+ 128. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd.) 2s. 6d. Mikrographie des Holzes. By Dr. J. W. Moll and H. H. Janssonius. Vierte Lieferung. Pp. 336. (Leiden: E. J. Brill.) The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Mollusca II. (Trochomorphida-Janellida). | By G. K. Gude. Pp. xii+ 520. (London: Taylor and Francis.) 20s. Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Scotland. The Geology of Caithness. By C. B. Crampton and R. G. Carruthers. Pp. viii+ 194. Sheets 110 and 116, to accompany the foregoing. (London: H.M.S.O.; E. Stanford, Ltd.) 4s. Magnetism and Electricity, including the Principles of Electrical Measurements. By S. S. Richardson. New edition. Pp. ix+598. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd.) 4s. 6d. Pottery, for Artists, Craftsmen, and Teachers. By G. J. Cox. Pp. ix + 200. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 5s. 6d. net. Canada. Department of Mines. Geological Survey. Memoir 41. The "Fern Ledges" Carboniferous Flora of St. John, New Brunswick. By M. C. Stopes. Pp. vi+ 142 + xxv plates. Memoir 54. Annotated List of Flowering Plants and Ferns of Point Pelee, Ont., and Neighbouring Districts. By C. K. Dodge. Pp. 131. Mines Branch. Lode Mining in Yukon. By T. A. MacLean. Pp. ix+205. The Copper Smelting Industries of Canada. By Dr. A. W. G. Wilson. Pp. xiv + 184+ plates. (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau.) The Rare Earths: their Occurrence, Chemistry, and Technology. By S. I. Levy. Pp. xiv + 345. (London: Edward Arnold.) Ios. 6d. net. Numerical Trigonometry. By N. J. Chignell. Pp. 126+ xii. (Oxford: Clarendon Press.) 2s. 6d. The Principles and Practice of Judging Live-Stock. By Prof. C. W. Gay. Pp. xviii+413. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 6s. 6d. net. The Chemistry of Cyanogen Compounds and their Manufacture and Estimation. By H. E. Williams. Pp. viii+423. (London: J. and A. Churchill.) IOS. 6d. net. Huxley Memorial Lectures to the University of Birmingham. With an Introduction by Sir Oliver Lodge. Pp. 157. (Birmingham: Cornish Bros., Ltd.) 5s. net. Hazell's Annual for 1915. Edited by T. A. Ingram. Pp. 592. (London: Hazell, Watson, and Viney, Ltd.) 3s. 6d. net. The Chemistry of the Radio-Elements. By Prof. F. Soddy. Part i. Second edition. Pp. viii+151. (London: Longmans and Co.) 4s. net. Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalænæ in the British Museum. Supplement, vol. i. Catalogue of the Amatidæ and Arctiada (Nolina and Lithosianæ) in the Collection of the British Museum. By Sir George F. Hampson. Pp. xxviii+858. (London: Longmans and Co., and others.) 258. The Pupil's Class-Book of Geography: The British Dominions. By E. J. S. Lay. Pp. 128. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 6d. First Book of Physiology and Hygiene. By G. D. Cathcart. Pp. vi+ 158. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) IS. 6d. Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. Ornithology of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. By W. E. Clarke, Dr. R. N. R. Brown, and L. N. G. Ramsay. Pp. 203-306+vii plates. The Seals of the Weddell Sea: Notes on their Habits and Distribution. By Dr. R. N. R. Brown. Pp. 185-198+ix plates. (Edinburgh Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory.) 11s. and 3s. 6d. respectively. Science and Religion. By Seven Men of Science, speakers in Browning Hall during Science Week, 1914. Pp. 138. (London: W. A. Hammond.) Is. THURSDAY, DECEMBER 31, 1914. CALCULATING DEVICES. Modern Instruments and Methods of Calculation. A handbook of the Napier Tercentenary Exhibition. Edited by E. M. Horsburgh. Pp. vii + 343. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., and The Royal Society of Edinburgh, n.d.) Price 6s. net. ALL LL who are interested in the history or the methods of calculation owe a debt of gratitude to the editor and the committee who have produced this valuable book. It is in the recollection of everyone concerned in mathematical operations that the Royal Society of Edinburgh held a great celebration in July last, three hundred years after the publication, by John Napier, of his admirable Canon of Logarithms. This was attended by learned delegates from many distant countries, as well as by a number of our own countrymen. Greatly as many must have regretted their inability to be present on account of duties elsewhere, this regret will not be lessened by a perusal of the book now under review, for from it they will learn what a magnificent collection was available for inspection and discussion. This collection of tables, books, portraits, and instruments of various kinds, which must have appealed to the historic as well as the utilitarian and mechanical instincts of those who were fortunate to be able to attend the celebration, form the basis upon which the present work is constructed, for it is in minor part catalogue and in major part a series of descriptive articles by experts in the several branches. Seeing that the price asked for a large octavo book of 343 pages and containing a very large number of excellent illustrations is only six shillings, those who are interested should feel that, like the Nautical Almanack, the work is in effect a gift, the price doubtfully covering the cost of production. The first section, by Prof. G. A. Gibson, deals with the life of Napier, of his great invention of logarithms, of his meeting with Briggs, and matters mainly of personal and historical interest. Here we read how Napier formulated his ideas of the logarithm which was derived, not from algebraic methods, as is now found to be most convenient, but upon the relative values of the portions of two lines determined by the motion of two points, one moving uniformly and the other, starting at the same, but moving with diminishing velocity such as to be proportional in amount to the length of the part untraversed. He thus made his logarithms without reference to a base, and the logarithm of "the whole sine' (the sine of 90°) becomes zero, the logarithm of positive quantities less than unity is positive, and of quantities greater than unity is negative. Curiously, hyperbolic logarithms to the base e are not those that Napier calculated, but logarithms to the base 1/e. It is difficult to realise now that highly convergent series for logarithms are universally understood how Napier could have calculated as he did the logarithmic series and tangents of all angles from o° to 90° by intervals of one minute of arc, and this long before the days of the binomial theorem. In this chapter we learn incidentally that Napier invented the decimal point, and we find also a description of the wellknown "bones." The next two sections are very largely in the nature of catalogues of the articles in the loan collection and of the collection of mathematical tables, but descriptive articles are included, of which one on portable sun-dials, by J. R. Findlay, and an account, written by Dr. Knott, of the great manuscripts by Dr. Sang, given by his daughters to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, may in particular be mentioned, as also the concluding article, by W. G. Smith, on the special development of calculating ability in prodigies or "calculating boys." The further chapters are as follows: "Calculating Machines," by F. J. W. Whipple, but including special articles by P. E. Ludgate and T. C. Hudson; "The Abacus," by Dr. Knott; "Slide Rules," by G. D. C. Stokes; "Other Mathematical Laboratory Instruments," by a number of specialists. As this chapter includes such varied and elaborate instruments as integraphs, planimeters and their use in naval architecture, harmonic analysers, tide predictors, machines for drawing conic sections, for solving equations and precision plotting, many of which are well illustrated and explained by a number of authors having special knowledge, it will be evident that this is one of the most technically difficult and illuminating in the book. Among remaining chapters may be mentioned that on ruled papers and nomograms, which latter are graphical devices by means of which numerical solutions may be found for equations involving several variables. For instance, in the general equation for a spherical triangle showing the relationship between any angle and the three sides, Prof. D'Ocagne has given a nomogram from which, if three of the six quantities are given, the other three can be determined by the aid of a stretched thread. The chapters relating to calculating mechanism contain descriptions of numerous recent additions |