expected that they should at least overlook in others, if they did not themselves indulge in them; and the custom is rapidly extending, for them to visit the men both in sickness and health, and do something more than merely discharge the formal duties of their office in respect to them. In ships on board of which no chaplains are embarked, the difference is chiefly perceptible in the observance of Sunday, dissemination of the Scriptures, and instruction of the ship's boys; this last in a very considerable degree brought about by a regulation of the Admiralty, not originally destined to this purpose, but which provided that such of them as were not officers' servants, should be distributed and placed under the particular care of the chief petty officers in the ship, to be brought forward both as seamen and artificers, two-handed fellows, as they were called, instead of being left, as formerly, to glean instruction as they could, in the mizen top. This order was issued, if we recollect right, as early as 1809, and with the most marked good effects in every way. Service, however, and very frequently also a sermon, is, in almost all cases, read to the people by the captain, or one of the officers; a liberal allowance of Bibles and Tracts is to be found in every ship; the men are encouraged, and the boys constrained, to read in them, even the masters of these latter beginning to take an interest in their instruction, and very frequently recommending them, for this purpose, to the care of an old quarter-master or seaman of good character, with whom they oblige them to mess. And there is no doubt that this machinery will yet further improve, and be successful to a certain point, which we shall presently endeavour to mark, because it is not set in motion merely by the zeal of a few individuals, whose sphere of action, whatever their worth, must necessarily be limited, but is in exact accordance at once with the spirit of the times, and the wants of the service; and thus, as we have just seen in one instance, works in many points, in conjunction with, and assisted by, regulations and circumstances which have no immediate or necessary connexion with it. The rationale appears to be as follows: The great temporal purposes of religion in the abstract seem to be, first, to raise men's thoughts above this world, fixing them on the next, and thus giving them views, and motives, and principles of conduct above the vacillation of immediately surrounding circumstances; and, next, to serve thus as a cope-stone to society here, a cement, so to speak, by which its elements are kept together, and prevented from being dissipated at every breath of men's passion or caprice. It is very well worthy of observation, however, account for it how we may, that every modification of it, true and false alike, produces these effects almost equally well, so long as it is believed in; and for their sakes merely, therefore, the value of different religions seems to depend, not altogether, perhaps, but certainly very much more, on the progress of society, than on any abstract quality in any creed. For example, the religion of Homer's heroes had an infinitely deeper influence on their minds, than the very same mythology had on those of the poets and philosophers of the court of Augustus; it was, therefore, a better religion in the one case than the other, and was, accordingly, suffered, under Providence, to maintain itself until it lost this character; for it is sometimes strictly philosophical to reason from consequences. On the other hand, when Christianity was first introduced into the world, it was a great deal too good for its age; it seems to have been a portion of the plan of its Divine Author, that other times should be instructed, and present ones benefitted, by its corruption, for certainly but for this, neither should we now know the futility of theological controversy, nor could Christianity ever have become an universal religion,* *The point of the wedge behoved to be first driven, the name first bestowed, and, in the fulness of time, the substance was to follow. In modern times, as is well pointed out in a late Number of the Quarterly Review, Missionaries lose a great deal by not adverting to this progression, (which was better understood by the Jesuits); but in some cases, even their theory on the subject, which is strongly opposed to ours, gives way before their tact. We remember, in the last Church Missionary meeting in this city, that a story was told with great pleasure, of some of the Ceylon tribes, who had and it was corrupted accordingly, As society went back in the dark ages, it fell more and more, still keeping pace with the deterioration of the other, never a piece of new cloth patching up an old garment, but always in due harmony and proportion with every thing around it;-until at length, men began to awake from their slumber, after the revival of letters, when its gradual purification became necessary, that it might maintain its place in the world; and it has been gradually purified accordingly. And, in like manner, in consonance both with reason and prophecy, as civilization spreads, it will spread in name and in purity, doubtless ; not faster, but a little slower-even as it will be found, on examination, to have done in all times past, instruments having been raised up, and success given to them, or withheld, in exact accordance with the wants of the age and country in which they have appeared. But sailors, within the last forty or fifty years, have come to want an improved religious education, very much for their own sakes, and within the last twenty, as we have seen, for their officers' sakes also; and they will thus surely get it. They are essentially and by profession, we have elsewhere observed, a devout race of men; and, in addition to the enumeration there given of the different avenues by which devotional feeling is calculated to reach their hearts, and which ascertains the probable accuracy of this remark on them, we may now observe further, that very many of their popular songs, their superstitions, some even of their vices, and a portion of their history, demonstrate it. Their habits of profane swearing, for example, were unquestionably in the beginning misguided and abominable, but yet devout imprecations; and it is even recorded of Columbus, and the fact is quoted by his son as a proof of his piety, that when irritated, his familiar oath was "God take you," and no more. But this etymology of a great many expressions of very different import, has been now long forgotten; in like manner, the zeal for reformation which Lord Clarendon states as, in his day, especially characterizing the fleet, has some time merged in a mere traditional contempt for Popish and Heathenish rites and ceremonies; sailors no longer now desire to sail on a Sunday " that they may have the prayers of the church with them," nor scruple to sail on a Friday from immemorial custom, because it was once a Fastday. Even the more modern of their songs have lost that devotional character which made almost psalms of their earlier ditties, and still gives a character to the music most in vogue with them; and, in a word, they were really growing very fast out of the form of religion altogether, however a vague feeling of it might still abide with them, an occasional comfort and support in danger, but scarcely ever a restraint on them; when circumstances were overruled to renew it in them, purified and improved; when the long arm of power, which, as far as this world is concerned, had kept them steady without it, was shortened, the conscience of some of their officers was roused, the prudence of others alarmed, and even general society, which meanwhile had got a long start, was called in to contribute to the entire effect.—All working together in the most beautiful manner for the benefit of these poor fellows, who otherwise seemed outcast, both of heaven and earth; and all calculated to be successful, we think, thus far. All proper means of religious instruction and communion will, in this way, come, within no very distant period, to be extended to seamen on board of men-of-war, as already every external respect is paid by them to its observances; and these will, on the whole, have fully more effect on their minds, than on those of the average population on shore, although certainly some careless tempers will find aliment from the circumstances, generaly unfavourable for this purpose, in which seamen must be placed. Profane swearing has already much gone out among them, and it will do so yet and expressed an inclination to embrace Christianity, "because their own god had been unable to give them the victory over us ;" and the motive is a very intelligible one, a great deal may and ought to be made of it, and others similar. But the good clergyman who boasted of it, most certainly forgot his abstract argument when he quoted it; for it is but the name of Christianity, if even that, which could be received on it. more. The present generation will not part with their habits of sensual indulgence, to any material extent at least it must be remembered that they are separated from their families, and constrained to certain long abstinencies by their situation; that besides this, early habit, and ignorance of bet ter sources of enjoyment conspire to fetter them; and that thus circumstanced, not only is it sheer wildness to expect to turn them over in mature years, by any external impulse what-, soever, but the attempt has in sundry cases, in which it has been suggested by an indiscreet zeal, been attended with the very worst imaginable consequences. The rising generation will, however, be better taught; and disgust, together with some other assist ances to be afterwards noticed, will so far aid conscience in their case, that we think it probable a most material change may thus in time be effected. On the other hand, however, we are persuaded that our men-of-war never can be made conventicles of, in any way: seamen will never be allowed to set themselves up as preachers or leaders of prayer in them; nor will the casuistries of religion ever become to pics of deep or common conversation among them in such a scene. The impressions made in this way on some of them while idle on shore are mere delusions; indeed we have no hesitation in saying, that a number of the examples of this kind quoted in the reports of the Bethel Society, bear internal marks of downright imposture, the nautical imagery contained in them being either incorrect, or wire-drawn beyond the habits or taste of a genuine seaman. The truth is, however, that the spirit of the times, and much more the spirit of the place, are against such extremes in the case before us. There are no prayer-meetings any where else, however they are insisted on by the very zealous, for soldiers and sailors; there is too much good sense now afloat in the world to be drawn aside from the private feelings of devotion to its mere exhibition. In like manner there is little or no separation at present ashore, nor any great attachment to dogmas, unless either hereditary, or founded on a mere preference of one preacher to another: men walk too firm now to trip at the mole-hills over which their fathers stumbled,-they are too busy and too enlightened.—And although sailors have yet to pass through that state of society in which, while knowledge is in its infancy, these things are most to be apprehended, there are peculiar disabilities in their situation on board of men-of-war, which promise, we think, certainly to exempt them from them. They can have no choice of pastors at any time in such a scene :-did their habits of obedience and submission to those over them suffer them even to make the attempt, they never could be permitted there to raise their voice above that of those entrusted with their instruction and command,-not on any subject, but much less on this, in which, it not being an exact science, babbling may so easily pass current with the half-educated for wisdom. It is chiefly with a view to reinforce discipline that it is now brought before them at all; (we mean in fact, not in theory, nor is this the only example in the world of the servant being greater than his lord,-the means being more va luable than the end :)-and it will never be suffered to minister occasion for its breach. At least we think this; and deem, indeed, that already we see the homely sense which never deserts practical men, and which, under the name of tact, we have noticed as ha ving carried naval officers in safety through the vicissitudes of past times, declaring itself among them against these extremes in the present.* And we are persuaded that did they appear more manifestly, it would yet more strongly express itself; although we think at the same time that there will never be much occasion for this, there are ingredients enow in the caldron to prevent, without its being necessary formally to suppress this effervescence. The second effect already, in a de 66 too At the last Naval and Military Bible Society meeting held here, a gallant officer, who bears on his person many marks of severe service, expressly said, that, in encouraging the society, he by no means wished sailors to be made, through its means, religious," &c. The expression was blunt, and scantly fitted, perhaps, for the general audience to which it was addressed; but it was good sense, perhaps rather the more for that, as it was meant, and was so received by his brother officers. VOL. X. 3 T gree, brought about in the navy by the causes we have named, or rather by the progress of society, of which they may all be considered features, is the more extended general and pro fessional education now also disseminating among its members, and of which we equally see the traces in its institutions. We have already adverted to the state of tuition on board ship in 1802-3; besides which, how ever, there was even then an establishment at Portsmouth, in the nature of a college, for a limited number of boys, chiefly officers' sons destined to follow their fathers' profession. But the root of the evil lay in the examination for lieutenants having become a mere form. It had once been strict, as to the practical branches of seamanship; these, however, were found, in time, so easy, that nobody was puzzled about them; theory was, as yet, neglected; on no branch of science was there, accordingly, any desire to excel; the ordinary level of information was low; and those who entered above it, in most cases speedily sank to its neighbourhood. Candidates to pass as lieutenants are now, however, subjected to two examinations-each in their way strict, on the theory and practice of their profession; the stimulus thus given is everywhere felt; and but one thing seems to us yet wanting to complete the effect, viz. the institution of an' advanced college, such as is possessed in the army, which should be a certain avenue to distinction and promotion, but into which only decided talents and previous attainments should be able to enter.* Such an establishment would improve the service as much by the exertions made by unsuccessful as successful candidates; and we think that it will ultimately be given to it. Meanwhile, the scientific spirit of the age is doing a great deal in this way; and we ought to add, that already a class is formed for the special instruction of shipwrights in every branch of theory, even to hydraulics, connected with their depart ment; this being among the many recent institutions in the navy, to the general spirit of which too much praise cannot be awarded. The entire prospect thus held out, however, is not uninteresting, even as regards science itself; for, habits of application once formed among naval officers, will speedily diverge into many tracks not strictly professional; and the number of competent observers and investigators of Nature thus sent to every part of the world, will be incalculably increased. Its moral influence on the situation of sailors, and prospectively on their characters, is, however, most to our purpose. The tastes and pursuits thus given to the officers will, in time, descend, in a degree, to the people under their command: their time will be thus employed, their minds enlarged, their thoughts occupied, their pleasures varied and purified, and the whole tone of their character raised. And there is a collateral effect also calculated to be thus produced on their mere situation as seamen, not quite so obvious in theory as these, which yet is already shewing itself in no inconsiderable degree; and, like every genuine result of a real, not merely an apparent change of circumstances, is capable of being traced to several causes at a time. Hitherto, in the navy, or at least up to a very recent period, the spirit and activity of temper which are indispensible in the composition of a good officer, have had no fields of exertion, except either fighting, when it could be had, or very minute internal regulations. The consequence has been, that the state of order constituting efficiency, was, in a great many instances, particularly where the service engaged in was inactive, considerably overstated. Some officers whose tempers were mercurial, deservedly rating promptness of manoeuvre very high, laid their watches on the binnaclehead, and demanded almost impossibilities of their people in this way. Others carried their notions of neatness to a similar excess, others those of uniformity, respect, &c,; and as failure was, in many cases, unavoidable, so punishment was certainly, in some, capricious and severe. Much of this, however, was stopped, as these last came to be progressively restrained; and when liberal information shall be generally disseminated through the navy, it will all terminate in the easiest and best manner possible for both parties. The superabundant en Our readers will find a paper on this subject in our 4th Volume, p. 345.-C. N. ergies of officers will have other fields on which to expand; and the intelligence of seamen will be raised, so as to understand the value of order, uniformity, promptness, and regulation, within their just limits. And thus, as the power to punish gets gradually more and more restricted, (for we do not believe this to have gained even yet its lowest point) the occasions of offence will be reduced in number; and it is only when the just balance between these is deranged, that any real inconvenience is sustained. We now assume, that a system of discipline, founded on influence, and not merely coercion, will gradually modify those institutions in the navy which impede its march, as having been established on other principles; and will thus, in time, perfect its own machinery. It would do this, even supposing that we continued to work in the dark, as in times past; but much more will it effect it, as men's eyes open progressively to the real nature of the task in hand. And there is much to do, in this way, on minute points on which we cannot now condescend, because the navy, having been hitherto ruled chiefly by force, its institutions are either entirely remedial, or very arbitrarily and repulsively preventive. But there is one department of its regulations-that relating to the people's pay, which is worthy of special notice from its importance, and which will illustrate in some degree also, the nature of the remainder. In all times past, even quite down to the present day, pay has, in the navy, been considered due only every six months; but when a ship is first commissioned, two months advance is issued, and subsequently, six months are always kept back. That is to say, at the end of the first year, four months more are paid, and ever afterwards, six months, as they successively fall due, provided the ship remains on the home station, and can be spared at each interval, from the service in which she is engaged, to repair to a port where there is a resident comnissioner. The balance is ultimately settled only when the crew are paid off and dismissed. But if the ship goes abroad at any period of her service, not a farthing more is advanced ill she returns, nor is any interest alowed on the arrears. And if no prize money is made, the people must clothe themselves upon credit with the purser, and furnish themselves with pocket-money, which they will not want, by selling their clothes to Jews and pawnbrokers, at the certainty of being cheated by them, and in most ships until lately, of being punished besides, for the unavoidable offence. The several pleas made for these regulations in times past have been, that it was wise to keep long arrears in hand, to secure against desertion; that Government gained very much by the use of so much money without interest, and by the numerous confiscations of parcels of it, when men did desert, notwithstanding their arrears; and that the people were much better without their money than with it, they only squandered it, and besides, they had prize-money. These pleas, however, it is plain, will not now all apply, admitting that they were founded on good policy formerly, which, at the same time, we partly deny. We scarcely think that a man was ever kept from deserting by his arrears merely; the motive is too distant a one for sailors, as they have been hitherto constituted. But in addition to this, such of them as still remain are notoriously unjust, and that, if our former reasoning be correct, is now a serious consideration. A labourer has a right to his hire; if he squanders it, it is his own; and if we wish him to do so, the certain way to succeed is to suffer him to take on goods to account, and be uncertain of the remaining balance; to feed his imagination thus, first, with a belief that it is greater than it is, and then, after all, to give it him, when, however reduced, it is a sum be yond his faculties, which our caution has prevented from expanding, to manage. Such a system might answer tolerably well-that is to say, its inconveniences may not have been very much felt, when it was possible to punish men for the irregularities into which they were thus betrayed; but it must become intolerable, as the rod progressively escapes from their officers' hands. Or rather, as a matter of fact, such as we have described it, it has of late years become intolerable, and has received sundry modifications accordingly, and will receive yet more. -- During the vigour of the old system, ships were currently kept abroad, under these circumstances, an inde |