considerable, cold, which often lasts uninterruptedly for months. The thermometer usually falls once or twice in the course of the winter as low as-5° Fahr., but seldom continues at that figure during twenty-four hours successively. A few degrees below the freezing point is the temperature which frequently lasts for months toge. ther in the winter season. The fall of rain is stated by Berghaus to be, in the four principal regions of Germany, as follows:In the region of the Rhine 25 in. 2" Paris meas. Weser 25 - 4Elbe & Oder 22 - 2 Danube 30 The quantity of rain which falls in summer is more than double the fall of the winter, throughout Germany. The number of rainy days averages 150, that of thunderstorms averages 19 for all Germany; but the latter are very unequally divided. The greatest number of thunder-storms is said to take place in Silesia, where the average amounts to 28 in the year. The smallest number is found in Lower Austria, where their annual number does not exceed 8. The prevailing winds are the W. and N.W. The first Carlovingian sovereigns of Germany were hereditary monarchs; but, so early as 887, the states, or great vassals of the crown, deposed their emperor, Charles le Gros, and elected another sovereign in his stead. And from that remote period the emperors of Germany continued to be elected, down to our times. Several of the great vassals of the empire had thus early attained to all but unlimited power; and it consisted of a vast aggregation of states of every different grade, from large principalities down to free cities and the estates of earls or counts. The federal tie by which these different states were held together was exceedingly feeble. Their interests and pretensions were often conflicting and contradictory, and they were frequently at war with each other and with the emperor. There was, in consequence, a great want of security; and the wish to repress the numberless disorders incident to such a state of things led, at an early period, to the formation of leagues among the smaller states, and the institution of secret tribunals. The privilege of voting in the election of emperor was restricted to a few of the most powerful vassals, being confined, by the Golden Bull issued by Charles IV., in 1356, to the archbishops of Mayence, Trèves, and Cologne, the duke of Saxony, the count palatine of the Rhine, the margrave of Brandenburg, and the king of Bohemia. The sovereigns of Bavaria, Hanover, Hesse, &c. did not acquire a right to vote till a much later period. Most of the great offices in the empire were hereditary; and the public affairs were transacted in diets or assemblies of the great feudatories and of the representatives of the free cities. as the diet had no independent or peculiar force to carry its decisions into effect, they were very frequently disregarded. At length, in the reign of Maximilian I., an attempt was made to introduce a more regular system of administration and a better police into the empire. But The progress and object of this change have been described as follows by Mr. K. F. Eichhorn: "A resolution was taken in the year 1500, in which a yearly assembly of the estates of the empire was not numerously attended, to transfer the authority which they exercised to a court to be established in Nuremberg, named the Reichsregiment. This court was to consist, under the presidency of the emperor or of his delegate, of members of the diet who might be present, and of 20 deputies from all classes of members of the diet. The whole empire, with the exception of Austria, Burgundy, and the territories of the electors, who were represented by special counsellors, was divided into six circles, for the convenience of electing deputies. The circles were Franconia, Bavaria, Upper Rhine, Lower Rhine, Westphalia, and Saxony. But this arrangement gave satisfaction to no party. For the emperor, this court was too independent, and it was too active in its proceedings to please those members of the diet who did not sit in it. It only remained assembled two years; and the diet evaded the establishment of a new court more dependent on the emperor. The division into circles was, however, found very convenient as a point of union for the members of the diet, whenever it became necessary to enforce the execution of decrees and sentences, as well as for the purpose of appointing members of the Aulic Chamber. In 1512, two new circles were, therefore, formed out of the territories of the electors (the circles of the Palatinate and Upper Saxony), and as many more out of the lands of Austría and Burgundy. Each of these circles chose, according to ancient custom, at its meetings a captain and delegates, who arranged and conducted the public force." As this political division was independent of the territorial subdivisions which the changes in families produced, it lasted as long as the empire itself preserved its unity as a political body; and even after the assumption of independence by the king of Prussia, that part of the kingdom of Prussia which previously formed a part of the empire was still included, nominally, at least, in the circle to which it belonged. By their refusal to join in this arrangement of internal police, and to become amenable to the decrees of the Aulic Chamber (Reichs Rammergericht), the Swiss cantons finally severed the last tie which united them to the empire. The influence of the kings of Poland caused a similar separation between the empire and the lands belonging to the Teutonic order, ca the right bank of the Vistula. At the period of the outbreak of the French revolution, in 1789, the ten circles of Germany were subdivided into the following territories: I. The circle of Austria, belonging entirely to the house of Austria, contained, 1. The duchy of Lower Austria. 2. Inner Austria, or the duchies of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, with Friaul and the district of Trieste. 3. Upper Austria, or the county of Tyrol, with the bishoprics of Trent and Brixen. 4. Fore-Austria, containing the Austrian Breisgau, the mar graviate of Burgau, the landgraviate of Nettenburg, the city of Constance, the manors of Altorf and Ravese burg, the towns of Riedlingen, Mengen, and the lordships of Vorarlberg. 11. The circle of Burgundy, belonging to Austria: 1. The duchies of Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Gueldres. 2. The counties of Flanders, Hainault, and Namür. III. The circle of Westphalia, divided between clerical and lay princes: 1. The bishoprics of Münster, Paderborn, Liege, and Omabrück. 2. The abbies of Corvey, Stablo, and Malinedy, Werden, St. Cornelis-Münster, Essen, Thorn, and Herfond 3. The duchies of Cleves (Prussian), Juliers and Berg fts the elector palatine), Oldenburg (to the bishop of Lübeck) 4. The principalities of Minden (Prussia), Werden (elector of Hanover), Nassau (counties of Diez, Siegen, Dillenburg, and Hademar, belonging to the stadthulder of Holland), East Frisia, Mörs, and Gueldres (Prussian). 5. The counties of Mark, Ravensberg, Tecklenberg,and Lingen (Prussian); Schaumburg (Hesse-Cassel and Lippe); Bentheim, Steinfurt, Hoya, and Diepholz (Hanover and Cassel); Riesberg (Prince Kaunitz); Pyrmont (Comer Waldeck); Wied, Sayn, Virnenburg, Spiegelberg, Gransfeld, Reckheim, Holzapfel, Blankenheim and Geroidstein, Kerpen, Lommersum, Schleiden, Hallermand 6. The lordships of Anhalt, Witten, Winneberg and Be stein, Gehmen, Gimborn and Nettstadt, Wickerud, Mylendrek, Reichenstein. 7. The free imperial cities Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Dortmund. IV. The circle of the Palatinate, divided between one lay and three clerical princes: 1. The electorate of Mayence, the archbishop of which ranked as the first elector and primate of the Germin empire. The electorate consisted of the archbishopric of Mayence, the city of Erfurt, the district of Eichsfend, and of the town and district of Fritzlar. 2. The electorate and archbishopric of Treves. 3. The archbishopric of Cologne and the duchy of Westphalia, which constituted the electorate of Cologne. 4. The palatinate of the Lower Rhine. 5. The principalities of Aremberg. 6. The bailiwick of Coblenz (Teutonic order). 7. The lordship Beilstein. 8. The burgraviate of Reineck. 9. The county of Lower Isenburg. V. The circle of the Upper Rhine, divided amongst a number of territorial lords, the most powerful of whom was the tandgrave of Hesse-Cassel: 1. The bishoprics of Worms, Spires, Strasburg, Basle, and Fulda. 2. The abbey of Weissenburg. 3. The principality of Heitersheim. 4. The abbies of Früm and Odenheim. 5. The principalities of Simmern, Lautern, Veidens, and Deuxponts. 6. Landgraviate of Hesse, in two lines, Cassel and Darmstadt. 7. Principality of Hersfeld (Hesse-Cassel). 8. The county of Sponheim (Palatinate and Baden-Baden), Salm and Nassau; Waldeck, Hanau-Münzenberg, Solms, Königstein (elector of Mainz and Count Staf berg; Upper Isenburg; the possessions of the count of the Rhine and the Wildgrave, viz., the county of Salat, the lordship of Grumbach, &c.; the counties of Les ningen, Witgenstein, Falkenstein (belonging to the em peror), Reipoltskirchen, Kriechingen, Wartenberg. 9. The lordships of Hanau-Lichtenberg, Bretzenbeim, Lach stuhl, and Olibrück. 10. The free imperial cities Worms, Spires, Frankfort-on-the Main, Friedberg, and Wetzlar. VI. The Suabian circle. Amongst the many princes of this circle, the duke of Wirtemberg and the margrave of Baden were the most powerful : 1. The bishops of Constance and Augsburg. 2. The abbies of Ellwangen, Kempten, Lindau, and Buchan 3. The duchy of Wirtemberg. 4. The margraviate of Baden. 5. The principalities of Hohenzollern (Hechingen and Sigmaringen). 6. The county of Thengen, the counties of Heiligenstadt and Baar (prince of Fürstenberg), lordships of the prines and counts of Otting, the landgraviate of Kleges (Prince Schwarzenberg), and the principality of Liche tenstein. 7. The domains of 17 abbots and 4 abbesses. 8. The lordships of 18 counts and barons. 9. Thirty-one free imperial cities: viz., Augsbarg, Ulm, E lingen, Reutlingen, Nördlingen, Schwäbisch Hall, U berlingen, Rothwell, Hellbronn, Gmünd, Memmingen, Lindau, Dinkelspühl, Biberach, Ravensburg, Kerop ten, Kaufbeuren, Weil, Wangen, Ismay, Leutkirch, Wimpfen; Giengen, Pfullendorf, Buchhern, Aalen, Bopfingen, Buchau, Offenburg, Gengenbach, and Zek am Hammersbach. VII. The circle of Bavaria, in which the elector of Bavaria and the sit and vote in the diet remained, as formerly, attached bishop of Salzburg took the lead: 1. The archbishop of Salzburg. 2. The bishoprics of Freising, Ratisbon, and Munich. 3. The abbies of Berchtisgaden, and 4. Meder and Ober-Münster. 5. The duchy of Bavaria, with the Upper Palatinate. 6. The principality of Neuberg and Sulzbach. 7. The landgraviates of Leuchtenberg and Sternstein. 8. The counties of Haag and Ortenburg. 9. The lordships of Ehrenfels, Salzburg, Pyrnbaum, Hohenwaldeck, and Breiteneck. 10. The free imperial city of Ratisbon (Regensburg). VIII. The circle of Franconia included 1. The bishoprics of Bamberg, Würzburg, and Eichstadt. 3. The principalities of Baireuth and Anspach. 6. The counties of Castell, Wertheim, Rieneck, and Erbach. IX. The circle of Lower Saxony: 1. Duchy of Magdeburg (Prussia). 2. Duchy of Bremen, principalities of Lüneburg, Grubenhagen, and Kalenberg (elector of Hanover)." 3. Duchy of Wolfenbüttel, principality of Blankenburg. 4. Principality of Halberstadt (Prussia). 5. Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Strelitz. 6. Duchy of Holstein, with the county of Ranzau, and the lordship of Pinneberg (king of Denmark). 7. The bishopric of Hildesheim. 8. The duchy of Saxon-Lauenburg (Brunswick). 9. The bishopric of Lübeck. 10. The principality of Schwerin (duke of MecklenburgSchwerin). 11. The principality of Ratzeburg (duke of MecklenburgStrelitz). 12. The free imperial cities, Lübeck, Hamburg, Bremen, Goslar, Mühlhausen, Nordhausen. X. The circle of Upper Saxony: 1. The duchy of Pomerania (of which that part beyond the Prenne belonged to Sweden, the remainder to Prussia). 2. The mark of Brandenburg (belonging to the king of Prussia). 3. The principality of Anhalt, divided ainongst four princes: -Dessau, Bernburg, Zerbst, and Köthen. 4. The electorate of Saxony (Saxon Albertine line. 5. Principalities of Weimar, Eisenach, Coburg-Gotha, Altenburg (dukes of Saxony, of the Ernestine line). 6. The abbey of Quedlinburg. 7. The county of Schwarzburg (Sondershausen, and Rudolstadt), Mannsfeld (Prussia and Hesse), Stolberg, and Wernigerode. 8. The lordships of Reuss and Schönburg and the county of Hohenstein. The Slavonic countries, which were not included in any circle, wire The kingdom of Bohemia. The margraviate of Moravia. The duchy of Silesia, so far as it was Austrian, the margraviates of Upper and Lower Lusatia, the duchy of Silesia (Prussian), and the county of Glatz. The lands held directly of the emperor, and not included in any circle, were The counties of Mumpelgard and Homberg. The abbies and convents, Elten, Kappenberg, and Burscheid. five benches or colleges. 1. The college of electors: Mayence, Trèves, Cologne, the Palatinate, Brandenburg, Saxony, Bavaria (since 1623), and BrunswickLüneburg (since 1692). 2. The college of the clerical and secular princes, bishops, margraves, counts, &c.; the numbers of the clerical members being 36, and of the secular lords, 63. 3. The colleges of the free imperial cities, then 54 in number. In 1791, began the memorable contest with revolutionary France, which ended in the overturn of the old Germanic constitution, which was tottering with age and too far gone in decay to bear regeneration. The treaty of Campo Formio, the first that history records in which the Rhine was acknowledged as the frontier of France, decreed an indemnification to those princes who lost by the cession and this indemnification could only be obtained by the spoliation of some others whose rights were equally indefeasible, in the heart of the empire itself. On the 25th of January, 1803, a decision was come to by the plenipotentiaries assembled for the arrangement of this matter, the import of which was as follows: The Holy Roman Empire, as that of Germany was styled, remained as it was divided into circles, but which, with the total loss of the circle of Burgundy, and of the lands on the left bank of the Rhine, were reduced to nine, whose boundaries it was proposed to regulate anew. This regulation was, however, prevented by the wars which so quickly succeeded each other. The right to to territories held directly as fiefs of the empire; and the place of the convocation of the diet remained at Ratisbon. The colleges remained also three in number; the first being the College of Electors, who were ten in number; one clerical,- the elector archchancellor ; and nine secular, Bohemia, Bavaria, Saxony, Brandenburg, Brunswick-Luneburg, Salzburg, Wirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Cassel. The electorate of Mayence had merged into that of the archchancellor, and the Palatinate into the electorate of Bavaria; Trèves and Cologne had disappeared, and four new-electorates had been created. The second College of Princes-counted 131 votes. The College of Towns was composed of six with votes: Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen, Frankfort-on-the-Maine, Augsburg, and Nuremberg. The other territories, enumerated above as not being included within the circles, remained as they were, nor did any change take place in the extent or position of the Slavonic countries. Berghaus gives the following comparative statement of the extent of the empire and of its circles before the year 1791, and in 1803, shortly before it was finally dissolved. Napoleon, who, since 1799, had directed the foreign policy of the French, not satisfied with this reduction of the power of the empire, now conceived the design of effecting its final dissolution. The treaty of Presburg, in 1805, which followed the battle of Austerlitz, gave him the means of carrying this project into effect, by forming a confederation of German princes, called the Confederation of the Rhine, who, uniting into a corporate body, in 1807, placed themselves under the protectorate of the emperor of the French. The wars which followed, with Prussia, in 1807, and with Austria, in 1809, gave Napoleon the power of altering the territorial distribution of Ger. many at pleasure. He accordingly created for his brother Jerome the new kingdom of Westphalia, and for his brother-in-law Joachim Murat, the grand duchy of Berg, and raised those members of the Confederation of the Rhine who supported his cause to new dignities and an openly recognised independence as sovereigns. Under these circumstances, the emperor, Francis II., by a solemn act, renounced the style and title of Emperor of Germany, on Aug. 6. 1809. In the following year, Napoleon incorporated the coasts of the German Ocean with the French empire, and divided them into departments; thus separating from Germany a district peopled by more than 1,100,000 inhab. It might have been expected that the ancient distinction, to which allusion has before been made, between high and low German countries, would, on this occasion, have been made the basis of new political divisions; but the circumstance seems to have been altogether overlooked, and can, at most, only explain the indifference with which the people of the north of Germany allowed themselves to be transferred from one hand to another The extent of the confederate states, united under the protectorate of Napoleon in 1811, is given by Berghaus as follows:- [See top of following page.] The termination of the war with Russia, or, as it is called in Germany, "the war of liberation," restored Germany to its geographical and political position in Europe, but not as an empire acknowledging one supreme head. A confederation of 35 independent sovereigns and 4 free cities has replaced the elective monarchy, that fell under its own decrepitude. In the choice of the smaller princes, who were to become rulers, as well as of those who were obliged to descend to the rank of subjects, more attention was paid to family and political connection than to the old territorial divisions under the empire. The clerical fiefs, and the greater part of the free imperial cities, were incorporated into the states of the more powerful princes, upon the dissolution of t empire, and were not re-established. Only four remained in the enjoyment of their political righ upon its opening must be the drawing up of the fundamendal laws of the confederation, and its organisation in respect to its relations with foreign powers, its military and internal arrangements. 11. All the members bind themselves for the protection of Germany against the attacks of any foreign power, as well as for the se curity of each individual state; and guarantee to each other mutually the possessions of each state which are comprehended within the confederation. When war has been declared by the confederation, no member of the confederation can enter into separate negotiations with the ene my; nor can separate truces or treaties of peace be concluded by indiThe members of the league reserve to themselves the right of Taking alliances of every kind, but bind themselves not to enter into any which could be prejudicial to the security of the confederation, or vidual members. of any of its members. 12. The meinbers further bind themselves under no pretence to declare war against one another, nor to pursue their mutual differences by force of arms, but engage to submit them to the diet. The diet is in such cases competent to attempt a reconciliation, by the appointment of a select committee, and should this not prove successful, to procure a decision from a well-organised court of arbitration, whose sentence is implicitly binding upon the disputing parties. 13. In all the states of the confederation, a constitution based on representation by estates shall be introduced (Landständische Verfassung). The first treaties in furtherance of this object were negotiated by Prussia with the principalities of Schwarzburg Sondershausen and Schwarzburg Rudolstadt, in 1818 and 1819, on the principle that there should be a perfect freedom of commerce between these countries and Prussia; that the duties on importation, exportation, and transit, in Prussia and the principalities, should be identical; that these should be charged along the frontier of the dominions of the contracting parties, and that each should participate in the produce of such duties in proportion to its population. All the treaties subsequently entered into have been founded on this fair and freedom of trade in all the countries comprised within equitable principle; the only exceptions to the perfect the league or tariff alliance being confined, 1st, to articles constituting state monopolies, as salt and cards, in Prussia; 2d, to articles of native produce, burdened with what they pay in another; and, 3d, to articles produced a different rate of duty on consumption in one state from under patents, conferring on the patentees certain privileges in the dominions of the states granting the patents. With these exceptions, which are not very important, and are daily decreasing, the most perfect freedom of commerce exists among the allied states. Brunswick. The labours of the committee for the organisation of the confederation having terminated and received the approbation of the diet, a further and more detailed de- Since 1818, when the foundations of the alliance were claration of the objects of the league, as well as of the laid, it has progressively extended, till it now comprises mode of conducting the affairs of the confederation, was more than four fifths of the Germanic states, exclusive of published on the 15th May, 1820. This document, Austria. Ducal Hesse joined the alliance in 1828, and electogether with the original act, as given above, and the toral Hesse in 1831; the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, and resolutions of the diet, principally relating to affairs of Wirtemberg joined it afterwards, as have Baden, Nassau, internal police, published in 1832, may be regarded as the and almost all the smaller states by which it had not been fundamental laws of the joined, with the exception of Hanover, MeckSince the laws; cation of federatiores, some modifi-Penburg Schwerin, Mecklenburg, Strelitz, Oldenburg, and cations have taken place in the territorial divisions of the confederated states. One state- Saxe-Gotha- has been taken from the list, in consequence of the extinction of the reigning house and the division of its territories amongst the other Saxon houses. A new member has been admitted, in the landgrave of Hesse-Homburg, and an exchange has taken place of a portion of the grand duchy of Luxemburg, ceded to Belgium, for an equal portion of the duchy of Limburg, which that power gave up to Holland. In the preceding table, these alterations are noted, and the number of votes is annexed which each power has in assemblies of the full diet, and in the standing committee, which annually assembles at Frankfort. Throughout the whole extent of this immense country, from Aix-la-Chapelle, on the confines of the Netherlands, eastward to Tilsit, on the confines of Russia, and from Stettin and Dantzic, southwards, to Switzerland and Bohemia, there is nothing to interrupt the freedom of commerce. A commodity, whether for consumption or transit, that has once passed the frontier of the league, may be subsequently conveyed, without let or hinderance, throughout its whole extent. Instead of being confined within the narrow precincts of their own territories, the products of each separate country of the alliance may now be sent to every one else; each will, in consequence, apply itself, in preference, to those departments in which it has some natural or acquired advantage; and each will have to depend for its success, not on the miserable resource of customs' regulations, but on its skill and salutary; and, should the peace of Europe be preserved, we run little risk in saying, that all sorts of industry will make more progress among the states comprised within the tariff alliance, during the next ten years, than they have done during the previous half century. An assembly of representatives from the allied states and make such new enactments as may seem to be required. The Prussian tariff has been adopted, with certain modifications, and is now the only one in force. The duties are received into a common treasury, and are apportioned according to the population of each of the allied states. In addition to its other advantages, the new system has reduced the cost of collecting the duties to a mere trifle, compared with its former amount; and has enabled hundreds of custom-houses, and thousands of customs' officers, to be employed in the different departments of industry. German Customs' League. - Until a very recent period, every one of these states into which Germany is divided had its own custom-houses, and its own tariff and revenue laws; which frequently differed very widely in-industry. The competition thence arising will be most deed from those of its neighbours. The internal trade of the country was, in consequence, subjected to all those vexatious and ruinous restrictions that are usually laid on the intercourse between distant and independent states. Each petty state endeavoured either to procure a revenue for itself, or to advance its own industry, by taxing or prohibiting the productions of those by which it was sur-meets annually, to hear complaints, adjust difficulties, rounded; and customs' officers and lines of custom-houses were spread all over the country! Instead of being reciprocal and dependent, every thing was separate, independent, and hostile: the commodities admitted into Hesse were prohibited in Baden, and those prohibited in Wirtemberg were admitted into Bavaria. It is admitted on all hands that nothing has contributed so much to the growth of industry and wealth in Great Britain, as the perfect freedom of internal industry we have so long enjoyed, and that intimate correspondence among the various parts of the empire, which has rendered each the best market for the products of the other. How different would have been our present condition had each county been an independent state, jealous of those around it, and anxious to exalt itself at their expense! But, until within these few years, this was the exact condition of Germany; and, considering the extraordinary obstacles such a state of things opposes to the progress of manufactures, commerce, and civilisation, the wonder is, not that they are comparatively backward in that country, but that they should be so far advanced as they really are. But, thanks to the intelligence and perseverance of Prussia, this selfish anti-social system has been well nigh suppressed; and the most perfect freedom of commerce is now established among the great bulk of the Germanic nations. The disadvantages of the old system had long been seen and deplored by well-informed men; but so many interests had grown up under its protection, and so many deep-rooted prejudices were enlisted in its favour, that its overthrow seemed to be hopeless, or, at all events, exceedingly distant. The address and resolution of the Prussian government have, however, triumphed over every obstacle. Being fully impressed with a strong sense of the many advantages that would result to Prussia and Germany from the introduction of a free system of Internal intercourse, they pursued the measures necessary to bring it about with an earnestness that produced conviction, and with a determination, coute qui coute, to carry their point. The existing discrepancy in the weights and measures used in different parts of Germany occasions considerable inconvenience; and we are glad to observe that the equalisation of weights and measures, and their reduction to a common standard, in all the allied states, is declared to be one of the objects of the league. It is also expressly provided that the tolls, or other charges in lieu thereof, shall, in all cases, whether they belong to the public, or to private individuals, be limited to the sums required to keep the roads in a proper state of repair; and that the tolls existing in Prussia shall be considered as the highest that are to be levied, and shall not in any case be exceeded. It was at first supposed by many persons in this country, and the opinion is not yet entirely abandoned, that the Prussian league was in some degree directed against us, and that, at all events, it threatened to be very injurious to our trade with Germany; we do not, however, believe that there is any foundation whatever for either of these opinions. The alliance was planned, and brought to its present advanced state, in the view, and with the intention, of putting down the galling and innumerable restraints by which the intercourse of the German states with each other was formerly interrupted; and not with the intention of throwing any obstacles in the way of the trade of the alliance with foreign countries: it is, indeed, quite absurd to suppose that it should have this effect. The freedom of internal commerce will do ten in the cost of collection, and from the increased co sumption which renovated industry and progressive prosperity so invariably cause." (Digest of Customs' Laws, vol. iii. p. 227.) times more to promote the industry and prosperity of the allied states than any other measure, or system of measures, that their governments could have adopted; and, as population increases, and the inhabitants become more industrious and wealthy, there will, no doubt, be an GERONA (an. Gerunda), a fortified city of Spain, augmented demand for foreign products. The league is Catalonia, cap. correg. of same name; on the declivity, now no new thing. It was formed several years since, and at the foot of a steep mountain, on the Ter, 30 m. and has been progressively augmented; but, hitherto, it N.E. Barcelona. Pop. 6,383. (Miñano, 1826.) The has not had the slightest influence in diminishing our in- plan of the city is nearly triangular. At the commencetercourse with Germany; our exports to it, including ment of the Peninsular war, during which it suffered Holland and Belgium, being greater at present than at greatly, Gerona was an important fortress; being surany former period! Generally speaking, the duties on rounded with old walls in good repair, and further imports are reasonable; at least, on all the finer de- defended by the citadel of Monjuiz, a square fort 730 ft. scriptions of goods. It never, in fact, can be the policy in length on each side, with bastions, outworks, &c. of the alliance to make them oppressive; for, though placed on an eminence about 60 fathoms distant, com certain states might erroneously suppose that their inter-manding the city; besides which there were 4 forts, with ests would be promoted by such means, others would redoubts upon the high ground above it. It is still partly undoubtedly be of a different opinion, and would resist surrounded by walls; but Monjuiz is its only outwork reany attempt to carry them beyond a reasonable amount. maining. It is now, says Inglis, chiefly noted for the DumS It is a mistake to suppose that Prussia has an overwhelm- ber of its religious edifices; there are no fewer than ing influence in the assembly. She must conciliate the 13 churches, besides the cathedral, and 11 contents. other states, and carry them along with her; and this The principal buildings are the cathedral and the cal can only be done by acting on liberal principles, and with legiate church of San Felice. The former, built on the a view to the common interest of the alliance. ridge of the mountain, “displays a majestic front at the top of three grand terraces ornamented with granite balustrades. The ascent to it is by a superb flight of 81 steps, of a breadth the whole extent of the church. The front is decorated in bad taste with three orders of architecture-Doric, Corinthian, and Composite, and flanked with two hexagon towers. The interior is large and handsome; it has only a nave in the Gothic style." I contains the monuments of Raymond Berenger, count of Barcelona, and his consort. The treasury of this charch afforded a rich spoil to the French, on their gaining pos session of Gerona. The collegiate church is of erhe architecture, consisting of a nave and 2 aisles divided by pillars: connected with it there is a very lofty and ance tower. In the Capuchin convent there is an Arabian bath of elegant construction. The streets of Gerona are narrow and gloomy, but clean and well paved; and the houses are tolerably well built. There are 3 squares, one of which is of considerable size; 2 hospitals, à seminary, college, with a good public library (formerly be longing to the university founded 1521 by Philip 11, and abolished 1715 by Philip V.), a Beguine seminary for poor girls, and several other schools. The place wears, how. ever, a dull and melancholy look. “The inhabs, have no theatre, no public amusements, no common rendezvous. Every one seems to live alone. One fourth of the pop are priests, monks, nuns, and students. They carry on very little trade. The only manufactories are a few looms for weaving coarse woollen and cotton stuffs and within the last twenty years." (Mod. Trav. xviii. 57.) Gerona is the seat of a bishopric, which is richer than that of Barcelona; of an ecclesiastical tribunal; a subdeleg. of police; and a military governor. It is of great antiquity, and formerly gave the title of prince to the son of the king of Aragon. It has sustained numerous sieges, and been famous for the brave defence it has always made; but especially for that it sustained under Martine Alvarez, in 1809, for upwards of seven months, agar a the French. (Miñano; Dict. Géog.; Southey; Swee burne; Inglis, &c.) Besides, if any of the existing duties be exorbitant, or if any of them, that are at present moderate, should be subsequently raised to an exorbitant pitch, does any one suppose that the over-taxed articles would not be immediately smuggled into all parts of the league? We, who occupy an island, and have revenue cruisers and coastguards on all the seas and shores most accessible to the smuggler, know from experience that it is not possible to hinder over-taxed commodities from making their way, in immense quantities, into our markets. But the facilities for smuggling into the territories of the league are incomparably greater. It has a land frontier of several thousand miles; and though the whole Prussian army were employed for that purpose, it would be found that it was utterly impotent to prevent the territories of the league from being deluged with such over-taxed commodities as were in demand by the inhabitants. It must be admitted that we have done not a little to provoke Prussia, and that we had no reason to be sur. prised had she manifested symptoms of irritation. She has only three great staple articles of export-corn, timber, and wool. Now, of these, we admit only the last on any thing like fair terms; in ordinary years, we entirely exclude corn, and we lay a duty of no less than 55s. a load on Prussian timber, while we admit the inferior timber of North America on payment of a duty of 108. Had, therefore, the Prussian tariff been levelled against us, we should have had but slender grounds for complaint; but such is not really the case. It may, in-stockings, which have been established in the asylum deed, be fairly inferred that, by agreeing to lower the oppressive duties on timber and corn, we might prevail on Prussia to use her influence to get the alliance duties on cotton stuffs, hardware, &c. abated; but, till we consent to moderate our duties on the articles in question, it is not to be supposed that Prussia will pay much attention to the exceptions we may take to any of the duties. We are glad to be able to strengthen our view of the influence and objects of the Prussian commercial league, by laying before the reader the following extract from a work printed by order of the House of Representatives of the American States. "Prussia," it is there said, "has evidently taken the lead in this wise and important measure, to which the smaller states have gradually acceded. The whole commercial policy of this enlightened power has been distinguished for its liberality, being founded on the desire of placing her intercourse with all nations on the basis of reciprocity. The commercial league of Germany is intended to carry out this principle, and not to be directed, as has been supposed, against any particular nation; as it is well known that Prussia, in her treaties with maritime powers, has invariably adopted the system of reciprocity, to whatever extent those with whom she negotiates are willing to carry it. The establishment of this community of commercial interests forms a part of the fundamental compact by which the new Germanic confederation was created, after the dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine; to be subsequently adopted, however, at the option of such of the co-estates as should choose to accede to it. Its effects cannot fail to promote commerce, and every other branch of industry, as it removes all those vexatious and endless difficulties which previously obstructed the freedom of intercourse. Navigable rivers and highways are now opened to the unfettered use of the German people; the customs and toll-houses, with their officers and barriers, have been withdrawn from the interior, and the whole intercommunication resembles that of the subjects of any one of the states within its own territories. To these benefits may be added the assured prospect of improvement in the finances of the great and smaller sovereignties composing the league. This advantage will grow out of the simplicity or unity of the new system, a saving GERS, a dep. of France, reg. S.W., between hd. 43° 17′ and 44° 4' N., and long, 0° 18′ W. and 1° 11' E.: having N. the dép. Lot-et-Garonne, E. those of Tarn-etGaronne and Haute Garonne, S. the latter and the Hautes and Basses Pyrénées, and W. Landes. Length, E. to W., 74 m., by about 54 m. in breadth. Area 626,399 hect. Pop. (1836) 312,882 The last ramificat of the Pyrenees cover most of this dep., the slope of which is mostly from S. to N. Rivers numerous: al ot them have more or less a N. direction, and are affluents of the Garonne or Adour. There are many ponds and small lakes. Gers, like the neighbouring deps, is subject to violent storms; its soil is, however, in general fertile. It has 333,600 hect. of arable land, 60,800 hect. meadows, and 87,800 hect. vineyards. Agriculture is very backward, but it has been much improved of late years. Only about 3-4ths of the corn required for home consumpti si is raised in the dep. ; it is chiefly wheat, maize, and oats Garlic, onions, various other vegetables, hemp, flax, &c. are plentifully cultivated. Fruit is good. About 900 000 hectol, of wine are produced in ordinary years, but it is mostly of mediocre quality: about a half is consumed at home, and the other half converted into brandy, which ranks next after that of Cognac. In 1830 there were es timated to be about 388,000 sheep, and 141,330 oxen, in the dep.; considerable attention has been paid to the improvement of the breed of the former, which yiek annually about 340,000 kilog. wool. Poultry are plenti ful; and, as well as hogs, fattened, or killed and salted they form an important article of trade. Manuisetures unimportant: there are a few fabrics of glass and earthenware, leather, starch, linen, woollen, and cotton cloth, and thread, cream of tartar, &c. The trade |