gold, and the wave of it, or the grasp, shall do more than another's with a shower of bullion. This invisible gold, also, does not necessarily diminish in spending. Political economists will do well some day to take heed of it, though they cannot take measure.

But farther. Since the essence of wealth consists in its authority over men, if the apparent or nominal wealth fail in this power, it fails in essence; in fact, ceases to be wealth at all. It does not appear lately in England, that our authority over men is absolute. The servants show

some disposition to rush riotously upstairs, under an impression that their wages are not regularly paid.1 We should augur ill of any gentleman's property to whom this happened every other day in his drawing-room.

So, also, the power of our wealth seems limited as respects the comfort of the servants, no less than their quietude. The persons in the kitchen appear to be ill-dressed, squalid, half-starved. One cannot help imagining that the riches of the establishment must be of a very theoretical and documentary character.

40. Finally. Since the essence of wealth consists in power over men, will it not follow that the nobler and the more in number the persons are over whom it has power, the greater the wealth? Perhaps it may even appear, after some consideration, that the persons themselves are the wealth— that these pieces of gold with which we are in the habit of guiding them, are, in fact, nothing more than a kind of Byzantine harness or trappings, very glittering and beautiful in barbaric sight, wherewith we bridle the creatures; but that if these same living creatures could be guided without the fretting and jingling of the Byzants2 in their mouths and ears, they might themselves be more valuable than their bridles. In fact, it may be discovered that the true veins of wealth are purple—and not in Rock, but in

1 [See above, p. 27.]

[Byzants, or bezants, the gold coins struck at Byzantium, were common in England till superseded by the noble, a coin of Edward III. (see Scott's Ivanhoe (vii.): “Here, Isaac, lend me a handful of byzants").]

Flesh-perhaps even that the final outcome and consummation of all wealth is in the producing as many as possible full-breathed, bright-eyed, and happy-hearted human creatures. Our modern wealth, I think, has rather a tendency the other way;-most political economists appearing to consider multitudes of human creatures not conducive to wealth, or at best conducive to it only by remaining in a dim-eyed and narrow-chested state of being.

41. Nevertheless, it is open, I repeat, to serious question, which I leave to the reader's pondering,' whether, among national manufactures, that of Souls of a good quality may not at last turn out a quite leadingly lucrative one? Nay, in some far-away and yet undreamt-of hour, I can even imagine that England may cast all thoughts of possessive wealth back to the barbaric nations among whom they first arose; and that, while the sands of the Indus and adamant of Golconda may yet stiffen the housings of the charger, and flash from the turban of the slave, she, as a Christian mother, may at last attain to the virtues and the treasures of a Heathen one, and be able to lead forth her Sons, saying,

"These are мY Jewels." 3

1 [See below, § 77, p. 104, where the question is resumed.]

2 [Compare the Preface to the second edition of Modern Painters, vol. i. § 14 (Vol. III. p. 21 and n.).]

3 [For this story of Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, see Valerius Maximus, 4, 4 : "Cornelia, Gracchorum mater, cum Campana matrona, apud illam hospita, ornamenta sua pulcherrima illius sæculi ostenderet, traxit eam sermone, donec a scola redirent liberi, et hæc' inquit 'ornamenta sunt mea.' For another reference to the story, see Ethics of the Dust, § 117. See on this passage generally Fors Clavigera, Letter 90, where Ruskin says that the principles stated "more or less eloquently in the close of this chapter were "scientifically and in sifted term explained and enforced in Munera Pulveris."]

ESSAY III

QUI JUDICATIS TERRAM1

42. SOME centuries before the Christian era, a Jew merchant, largely engaged in business on the Gold Coast, and reported to have made one of the largest fortunes of his time (held also in repute for much practical sagacity), left among his ledgers some general maxims concerning wealth, which have been preserved, strangely enough, even to our own days. They were held in considerable respect by the most active traders of the Middle Ages, especially by the Venetians, who even went so far in their admiration as to place a statue of the old Jew on the angle of one of their principal public buildings. Of late years these writings have fallen into disrepute, being opposed in every particular to the spirit of modern commerce. Nevertheless I shall reproduce a passage or two from them here, partly because they may interest the reader by their novelty; and chiefly because they will show him that it is possible for a very practical and acquisitive tradesman to hold, through a not unsuccessful career, that principle of distinction between well-gotten and ill-gotten wealth, which, partially insisted on in my last paper, it must be our work more completely

to examine in this.

2

43. He says, for instance, in one place: "The getting of treasures by a lying tongue is a vanity tossed to and fro of them that seek death"; adding in another, with the same

1 [For this title, see below, § 46.]

[For the sculpture of Solomon on the "Judgment Angle" of the Ducal Palace, see Stones of Venice, vol. ii. (Vol. X. pp. 332, 359, 363).]

3 [The Bible references in §§ 43, 44 are to Proverbs xxi. 6; x. 2; Psalms xlv. 13; Proverbs xxii. 16; xxii. 22 (“Rob not the poor because he is poor; neither oppress

meaning (he has a curious way of doubling his sayings) : "Treasures of wickedness profit nothing: but justice delivers from death." Both these passages are notable for their assertions of death as the only real issue and sum of attainment by any unjust scheme of wealth. If we read, instead of "lying tongue," "lying label, title, pretence, or advertisement,” we shall more clearly perceive the bearing of the words on modern business. The seeking of death is a grand expression of the true course of men's toil in such business. We usually speak as if death pursued us, and we fled from him; but that is only so in rare instances. Ordinarily he masks himself-makes himself beautiful-all-glorious; not like the King's daughter, all-glorious within, but outwardly: his clothing of wrought gold. We pursue him frantically all our days, he flying or hiding from us. Our crowning success at three-score and ten is utterly and perfectly to seize, and hold him in his eternal integrity-robes, ashes, and sting.

Again: the merchant says, "He that oppresseth the poor to increase his riches, shall surely come to want." And again, more strongly: "Rob not the poor because he is poor; neither oppress the afflicted in the place of business. For God shall spoil the soul of those that spoiled them."

This "robbing the poor because he is poor," is especially the mercantile form of theft, consisting in taking advantage of a man's necessities in order to obtain his labour or property at a reduced price. The ordinary highwayman's opposite form of robbery-of the rich, because he is rich-does not appear to occur occur so often to the old merchant's mind; probably because, being less profitable and more dangerous than the robbery of the poor, it is rarely practised by persons of discretion.

44. But the two most remarkable passages in their deep general significance are the following:

The rich and the poor have met. God is their maker."

the afflicted in the gate"); xxii. 23; xxii. 2; xxix. 13; Wisdom of Solomon (Apocrypha), v. 6 ("the sun of righteousness rose not upon us"); Malachi iv. 2 ("sol justitiæ" in the Vulgate); Acts iii. 14 ("the holy one and the just ").]

"The rich and the poor have met. God is their light."' They "have met": more literally, have stood in each other's way (obviaverunt). That is to say, as long as the world lasts, the action and counteraction of wealth and poverty, the meeting, face to face, of rich and poor, is just as appointed and necessary a law of that world as the flow of stream to sea, or the interchange of power among the electric clouds:-" God is their maker.' But, also, this action may be either gentle and just, or convulsive and destructive: it may be by rage of devouring flood, or by lapse of serviceable wave;-in blackness of thunderstroke, or continual force of vital fire, soft, and shapeable into love-syllables from far away. And which of these it shall be, depends on both rich and poor knowing that God is their light; that in the mystery of human life, there is no other light than this by which they can see each other's faces, and live;— light, which is called in another of the books among which the merchant's maxims have been preserved, the "sun of justice," of which it is promised that it shall rise at last with "healing" (health-giving or helping, making whole or

* More accurately, Sun of Justness; but, instead of the harsh word Justness," the old English "Righteousness" being commonly employed, has, by getting confused with "godliness," or attracting about it various vague and broken meanings, prevented most persons from receiving the force of the passage in which it occurs. The word "righteousness" properly refers to the justice of rule, or right, as distinguished from "equity," which refers to the justice of balance. More broadly, Righteousness is King's justice; and Equity Judge's justice; the King guiding or ruling all, the Judge dividing or discerning between opposites (therefore, the double question, "Man, who made me a ruler-dikaσrs-or a divider-μeptors-over you?" 2) Thus, with respect to the Justice of Choice (selection, the feebler and passive justice), we have from lego,-lex, legal, loi, and loyal; and with respect to the Justice of Rule (direction, the stronger and active justice), we have from rego,-rex, regal, roi, and royal.3

1 [In the second of these texts Ruskin translates the Vulgate instead of giving the version in the English Bible. The verses in the Vulgate (Proverbs xxii. 2; xxix. 13) are “Dives et pauper obviaverunt sibi: utriusque operator est Dominus." "Pauper et creditor obviaverunt sibi: utriusque illuminator est Dominus."] 2 [Luke xii. 14.]

3 [For these etymologies, compare Munera Pulveris, § 113 (below, p. 239), and Crown of Wild Olive, § 109.]