Takshasila, set up in Benares what would be called private schools in Europe, and imparted higher education to a large number of Fupils. The Kosiya Jātaka (Vol. I, 130) states "Bodhisatto Takkasilāyaṁ sabbasippāni uggaṇhitvā Bārāṇasiyam disāpāmokkho āchariyo ahosi, rajdhānīsu khattiyakumārā cha brāhmanakumārā cha yebhuyyena tass'eva santike sippaṁ uggaṇhanti.” Bodhisatto having mastered all the sippas (sciences) in Takshaśilā became a teacher of world-wide fame in Benares. In the capital a large number of Kshatriya and Brahmin youths used to learn sippas from him. Again in the Anabhirati Jātaka (Vol. II, 185) it is stated : "Bodhisatto . Takkasilāyaṁ mante uggaṇhitvā disāpāmokkho achariyo hutvā Bārāṇasiyam bahū khattiyabrāhmaṇakumāre mante vāchesi. " Bodhisatto having learnt sacred verses in Takshaśilā, became a far-famed teacher in Benares and gave lessons in sacred verses to many Kshatriya and Brahmin youths.

All these references indicate that through the help of these students, the culture of Takshaśila was introduced into Benares. Though there is no mention of other places in the Jātakas, it is likely enough that numerous schools sprang up in the country conducted by the ex-students of Takshasila, which in a great degree helped the progress of education.

Forest Seats.-The spread of higher education was also largely promoted by religious teachers, who after completing education in Takshaśilā, renounced the world and becoming hermits, gave instruction to numerous disciples in the traditional learning of the age. One of the many references which bear out the fact, is mentioned in the Adichchupaṭṭhāna Jātaka (Vol. II, 175) which states "Bodhisatto käsiraṭṭhe brāhmaṇkule nibbaṭittva vayappatto Takkasilāyam sabbasippaṁ ugganhitva isipabbajjaṁ pabbajitvā mahāparivāro

gaṇasattha hutva Himavante vāsaṁ kappesi ". Bodhisatta was born in a Brahman family in the kingdom of Kāśī and having mastered all the sippas (sciences) in Takshaśilā became a hermit and lived in the Himalayas at the head of a large number of disciples.

In Hindu India these forest seats were much renowned as centres of culture and some of the boldest speculations in Indian philosophy emanated from these sylvan seats of learning.

Residential system.-The chief feature of these educational institutions was that they were residential, and, from the frequent use of the expression " pañchamāṇavakasatāni" which means a body of 500 pupils, it appears that the usual number of students which learnt under the guidance of an Achariyo or the chief preceptor was limited to five hundred. These resident pupils, according to the Tilamuṭṭhi Jātaka (Vol. II, 252) were divided into two classes, viz., those who paid the teacher's fee (achariyobhāgadāyakā) and those who could not afford to pay it (dhammantevāsikā). Whenever a new student arrived, the teacher made it a point to enquire of him to which class he would like to belong. Thus when Brahmadattakumāra reached Takshasila for education, he was addressed by the Achariyo in these words "kin te achariyobhāgo ābhato, udāhu dhammantevāsiko hotūkāmo sîti." Well, have you brought the teacher's fee or do you wish to attend on me in return for teaching you? (Rouse.) It is further stated therein that those who brought the teacher's fee were treated like eldest sons (Jeṭṭhaputta viya) in the house of the teacher; while those who could not afford to pay any remuneration, had to perform menial duties, e.g., drawing water, bringing firewood, etc., during the day, and received instruction at night. “Dhammantevāsikā divā āchariyassa kammaṁ katvā rattiṁ sippaṁ ugganhanti."

Besides the resident pupils, day-scholars are also mentioned in the Jātakas. The following extract from the Durājāna Jātaka (Vol. I, 64) will show that there were married men who prosecuted studies living in their own homes.

"Bodhisatto disāpā mokkho āchariya hutvā pañchamāṇavakasatāni sippaṁ sikkhāpeti. Ath'eko tiroraṭṭhavāsiko brāhmaṇamaṇavako āgantva tassa santike sippam ugganhanto ekāyā itthiyā patibaddhachitto hutvā tam bhariyaṁ katvā tasmin eva Bārāṇasinagare vasanto dye tisso velāya āchariyassa uppaṭṭhānāṁ na gacchati."

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REFERENCES TO EDUCATION.

[J.B.O.R.S.

"Bodhisatta having become a teacher of world-wide fame instructed 500 pupils in sippas. One of them, a Brahmin youth, from a foreign land while studying under him fell in love with a woman and made her his wife. Though he continued to live. in Benares, he failed two or three times in his attendance on the teacher." (Translation adapted from Chalmers.)

Fees. The amount of fees for higher education was fixed at 1,000 kahapanas with which every boy going up to Takshaśilā had to be provided. Out of this money were presumably met the expenses of the food and clothing of the students during their stay at the University. As a general rule the fees were realized before the commencement of study. The only exception is found in the Dūta Jātaka (Vol. IV, 478) in which a student is represented as collecting nikkas (gold) for paying his teacher after the completion of education. The mention of the nikkas is conclusive as showing that fees were accepted in gold. Considering the length of time, a student took to finish higher education and taking into account the necessary expenses which the teacher had to incur for him, the amount of fees charged, does not seem to have been very heavy.

In addition to that, every facility was afforded to the poor to enable them to receive higher education free of cost. The Losaki Jātaka (Vol. I, 41) states "Bodhisatto Bārāṇasiyaṁ disāpāmokkho achariyo hutvā pachamāṇavakasatāni sippaṁ vāchesi. Tadā Bārāñasivāsino dunggatānaṁ paribbāyam datvā sippam sikkhapenti." Bodhisatta having become a far-famed teacher in Benares, instructed 500 pupils in sippas. In those days the people of Benares used to bear necessary expenses of poor pupils and had them taught free.

Duration of Student life.-The duration of student life is not distinctly mentioned in the Jātakas. From numerous references it is clear that students used to go up for higher educa tion at the age of sixteen. In Buddha Ghosha's commentary on the Chivarakhandhaka Vinaya Pitaka (Singhalese Edition) (') it is stated that Jivaka, who went to study medicine in Tak(') This reference has been kindly given to me by Principal D. N. Sen, M.A.

T

shaśilā, learnt in seven years what others would have learnt in sixteen years. "Ettha ayam kira Jiväka yattakam achariyo yānāti, iyam aññe solasehivasschi ugganhanti, tam sabbam sattahi vassehi uggahesi." "This Jivaka has learnt all that in seven years which the Achariyo knows and which others take sixteen years in learning." Here we get the two extremes, which, when added to sixteen, make up twenty-three and thirty-two, the minimum and maximum age respectively during which it can be reasonably supposed, the students finished their higher education.

Marriage.-Marriage was usually performed after the completion of student life. But instances are also mentioned in the Jātakas wherein students are described as attending the lectures of the teacher even after marriage. The Darājāna Jataka referred to above and the Anabhirati Jātaka (Vol. I, 65) inention how a student was compelled to absent himself from lectures owing to the bad influence of his wife. The Silavimamsana Jātaka (Vol. III, 305) describes the test by which a teacher of Takshaśila chose a virtuous bridegroom for his grown up daughter from among his students. Addressing his chieft pupil, Bodhisatta, who alone could stand the test, the teacher said: "Aham pana Silasampannassa dhitaram dātukāmo ime maṇavake vimaṁsanto evam akāsim, mama dhita tumham ñeva anuchhavikā, ti dhitaram alamkaritva Bodhisattassa adasi." "In order to marry my daughter to a virtuous man, I acted thus to test these pupils. But you alone are worthy of my daughter." Saying this he adorned his daughter and gave her in marriage to Bodhisatta.

All these examples show that marriage was permissible even during student life, but the practice was not generally followed.

Habits of life.-The particulars of student life are very few in the Jātakas. Those that are found show that students had a very simple life under the paternal care of their teachers. The Tilamuṭṭhi Jātaka gives us an idea of the necessaries of student life. A pair of one soled shoes (ekatâlika upanaha) and a sunshade of leaves (pannachattam) were all with which even the

sons of kings were provided when going to Takshasila. The purse of 1,000 kāhapaņas, which they usually took from home as teacher's fee, had to be delivered to the teacher before the commencement of study. There is no indication in the Jātakas that the students had any private purse out of which they could spend at pleasure. The Junha Jātaka (Vol. IV, 456) suggests that even princes were not allowed to retain a single farthing with them. Prince Junha, son of the king of Benares, while coming to his lodgings one night in the dark, after listening to the lecture of his teacher in Takshaśilā, ran against a poor Brahmin and broke his alms-bowl. When the Brahmin asked for the price of rice, the prince had to declare his inability to pay it. He said" idān' aham tāva bhattamulam datum no sakkomi, aham kho pana kāsirañño putto Juṇhakumāro nāma, mayi rajje patiṭṭhite āgantvā maṁ dhanam yaceyyasîti". I cannot now give you the price of a meal; but I am Prince Junha, son of the king of Kāśī, when I become possessed of the kingdom, you may come to me and ask for the money." (Rouse.)

This incident illustrates what sort of strict control they had to live under. They were not even free to go to the river side for taking their bath. The Tilamuṭṭhi Jātaka says that at the time of bathing the students were acco npanied by their teacher who was apparently deputed there to look after the ir discipline. Any breach of it was punished. We read in the same Jātaka of a boy who while going to take his bath with the teacher picked up some sweets without the permission of the vendor. On a complaint being made, the teacher asked two other students to hold fast both the hands of the culprit and himself struck him on his back with bamboo stick.

"Dvîhi māṇavehi tam Kumāram dvisu hatthesu gāhāpetvā velupesikam gahetvā.... puna evarūpaṁ mākāsîti "tikkhattum pitthiyam pahari" (Vol. II, 252).

Food. Their food was as simple as their habits of life and consisted chiefly of rice (bhatta) or rice gruel (yagum) prepared by the maid of the teacher's house. In invitation-dinners they were given unrefined sugar, curd and milk, "Ekadivasam