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has followed from the inquiries of chronologists that in this year the 1st of Thoth took place on July 20 (Julian), the date originally of the heliacal rising of Sirius, the beginning of the year.

This being so, then, in the year 23 A.D. in which the Alexandrine reform of the calendar, of which more presently, was introduced-the 1st of Thoth would take place on August 29, a very important date. Censorinus also said that in his own time (A.D. 238) the 1st of Thoth of the vague year fell on June 25. Fig. 5 will show the connection of these three dates in reference to the vague year. The relations of the statements made as to the years 139 and 238 are very clearly discussed by Dr. Oppolzer.

Oppolzer, then, being satisfied as to the justice of taking the year 139 A.D. as a time of coincidence of the fixed and vague years-the latter being determined alone by the heliacal rising of Sirius, and, be it remembered, not by the solstices-calculated with great fulness, using Leverrier's modern values, the years in which, in the various Egyptian latitudes, chiefly taking Memphis (lat. 30°) and Thebes (lat. 25°), the coincidence between the two Thoths occurred in the previous periods of Egyptian history. He finds these dates for latitude 30 as follow:

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Now the date which Oppolzer gives for the coincidence which is nearest the date we had previously determined at 270 B.C. is 139 A.D. There is a difference of 409 years. The question is, Can this fundamental difference be explained? I think it can.

In the first place, it is beyond doubt that, in the interval between the Ramessids and the Ptolemies, the calendar, even supposing the vague year to have been used and to have been retained, had been fundamentally altered, and the meanings of the hieroglyphics of the tetramenes had been changed-in other words, the designations of the three seasons had been changed.

On this point I quote Krall in a note.2

It should be observed that a distinction is made between the Julian and the historical year. This comes from the fact that when astronomical phenomena are calculated for dates B.C., it must be remembered that chronologists are in the habit of designating by 1, or rather by -1, the first year which precedes the instant of time at which the chronological year commenced, while astronomers mark this year in their tables by o. It follows, therefore, that the rank of any year B.C. is always marked by an additional unit in the chronological dates. For the Christian era, of course, chronologists and astronomers work in the same way. The following table, given by Biot, exhibits the connection between these two methods. In the latter Biot shows the leap-years marked B, and the corresponding years in the Scaligerian chronological period are also given.

Dates of Julian Years commencing on January 1.

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The three hieroglyphic signs used for the tetramenes are supposed to represent water, flowers, and a barn, and the natural order would be that the first should represent the inundation, the second the sowing which succeeds it, and the last harvest time. If this be conceded, the initial system would have had the month Thoth connected with the water sign, as Thoth in early Egyptian times was the first inundation month. But in the times of the Ramessids even this is not so. Thoth has the sowing sign assigned to it. In the time of the Ptolemies the flood is no longer in Thoth, but in Pachons, and Pachons has the barn sign attached to it, while the month Thoth is marked by the water sign, thereby bringing back the hypothetical relation between the name of the month and the sign, although, as we have seen, Thoth is no longer the flood month.

Egyptologists declare that all or at least part of this change took place between the periods named; they are undoubtedly justified as regards a part.

At one point in this interval we are fortunately supplied with some precise information. In the year 238 P.C. a famous decree was published, variously called the decree of Canopus and the decree of Tanis, since it was inscribed on a stone found there.

It is perfectly clear that one of the functions of this decree was to change, or to approve an already made change in, the designation of the season or tetramene in which the inundation commenced, from Thoth to Pachons.

Another function was to establish a fixed year, as we shall see presently. We must assume then that a vague year was in vogue prior to the decree. Now the decree tells us that at its date the heliacal rising of Sirius took

place on 1 Payni. Assuming that this date had any relation to the system we have been considering, the cycle to which it belonged must have begun

Days. 5 Epacts

30 Mesori 30 Epiphi 30 Payni

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95 × 4 380 years previously; that is, in the
year 618 B.C.

Now here at first sight it would seem that the Sothic cycles we have been considering have no relation to the one now in question; for, according to my view, the last Sothic cycle began in 1728 B.C.

A little consideration, however, will lead to the contrary view, and show that the time about 600 B.C. was very convenient for a revision of the calendar.

In the first place nearly a month now elapsed between the coming of the flood and the heliacal rising; and in the second, by making the year for the future to begin with the flood, a change might be made involving tetramenes only.

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of Scaliger.

4708

4709

4710

4711

4712

4713B

4714

4715

4716

Physical instant when the era commenced.

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+4B +5

4717 B 4718

a Loc. cit. p. 29. "It is well known that the interpretation of the seasons and the months given by Champollion was opposed by Brugsch, who propounded another, which is now universally adopted by experts. Something has happened here which is often repeated in the course of Egyptian history -the signs have changed their meaning. Under the circumstance that the vague year during 1461 years wanders through the seasons in a great cycle, it

628 B.C.

Nor is this all. A very simple diagrammatic statement will show what might also have happened about 618 B.C

is natural that the signs for the tetramenes should have changed the significations in the course of millenniums.

While Thoth was the first month of the inundation in the documents the Thutmosids and Ramessids, we have in the time of the Ptolemies the most Pachons as the first month of the flood season. Whilst Brugsch's explanat is valid for the time of the Ramessids, it is not so for that of the Ptolemies to which Champollion's view is applicable."

1 Probably too great a value by 2 or 3 days.

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On the other hand, we have the decree of Canopus, giving us by exactly the same system a local revision of the Calendar about 600 B.C. I say about 600 B.C. because it must be remembered that a difference of 23 days in the phenomena observed will make a difference of 10 years in the date, and we do not know in what part of the valley the revision took place, and therefore at what precise time in relation to the heliacal rising the Nile-rise was observed.

Whenever presumably it took place, New Year's day was reckoned by the Flood, and the rising of Sirius followed nearly, if not quite, a month afterwards. The equivalent of the old 1st Thoth was therefore 1 Payni. In months, then, the old 1st Thoth was separated from the new one (= 1 Payni) by 3 months (Payni, Mesori, Epiphi) and the Epacts.

In this way, then, we can exactly account for the difTerence of 409 years referred to above as the dates

TECHNOLOGICAL EXAMINATIONS.

THE report of the results of the Technological Examinations, held this year under the direction of the City and Guilds of London Institute, has a special interest, seeing that after this year the system of payment on results in connection with all classes outside the Metropolis will be discontinued. There is no doubt that the offer of payment to teachers helped very greatly in 1879 to stimulate the formation of technical, as distinct from science, classes, and the great extension of this work of the Institute is largely due to the offer then wisely made of contributing towards the cost of instruction. The tables furnished in the report, and the diagram of results, are very interesting as showing the great development of these trade classes. Since 1880 the number of candidates for examination has increased more than tenfold, the numbers being 816 in 1880 and 8,534 in 1892. In 1885 there were 263 technological classes in different parts of the country, and in the session 1891-2 this number had increased to610. There is, of course, a corresponding increase in the number of students in attendance at these classes. In 1881 the number of students was 2,500, this year it was 16,565. This record of progress is certainly satisfactory, and particularly so, seeing that prior to 1891 there was no sort of organization to carry on the work of directing and assisting technical classes for artisans in different parts of the country. As a pioneer movement, the work of the City Guilds Institute has been eminently successful, and many of the Technical Schools which have now been brought under the control of County Councils undoubtedly owe their origin to the technological classes promoted by the City Guilds. The question now demanding attention is the future of these classes. Much is to be said in favour of associating them more closely with the science classes, which are held in the same schools; but what is wanted for the permanent improvement of such classes is a system of efficient inspection by persons competent to advise County Councils with respect to the important work now under their control.

From the report and programme it appears that year by year the Institute adds to the extent and efficiency of its examinations by the introduction of new subjects and of practical tests. Practical examinations were held this year for the first time in photography, goldsmiths' work, boot and shoe manufacture, and in wood-working in connection with the examination in manual training for teachers of public elementary schools. This last examination is somewhat different in kind from the other examinations of the Institute. It is not a trade examination. Its purpose seems to be to encourage instruction of a distinctly educational character. Moreover, it is a

close examination. None but teachers of public elementary schools are eligible, and these must have regularly attended a course of practical lessons in a registered class under a teacher approved by the Institute. Notwithstanding these restrictions, 615 candidates presented themselves at the first examination held by the Institute, and of these 350 passed, 195 obtaining the Teacher's Certificate.

The report contains full statistics of the results of the examinations in each of the 61 subjects included in the programme, and it also shows the results in each of the 210 towns where the examinations were held. Of the centres outside London, Manchester sent up the largest number of successful candidates, whilst Glasgow, Dundee, and Leeds come next in order. The report calls attention to the fact that the proportion of candidates to the population is far less in London than in Manchester, whilst the hope is expressed that the larger facilities for technical instruction which will be available within the next few years will lead to an increase in the number of students doubt take place with the opening of new polytechnic institutions; but we venture to think that the real improvement in technical education cannot be correctly measured by any mere increase in the number of candidates for examination. It depends much more upon the character and quality of the instruction which the candidates receive. The great defect of our present organization is the poverty in knowledge and practical experience of the teachers of our science and technical classes. Some improvement in the qualifications of teachers, and in the conditions of their training, is needed before progress can be measured by the increase in the number of students in attendance, or of candidates for examination.

and of candidates for examination. This increase will no

We notice that in future the Institute proposes to award two kinds of certificates-the one kind to students who have regularly attended a course of instruction under an approved teacher, and the other to candidates who may present themselves for examination without giving any evidence as to their training. In this way the Institute proposes to combine the functions of a teaching and an examining body. The certificate indicating that the candidate has received some training at a school of recognized position will doubtless acquire a distinct value; but much will depend upon the ability and the reputation of the teacher under whom the candidate may have studied.

Of the many alterations in the new programme the most important is the addition of a practical part to the examination in mechanical engineering. This examination of the Institute has never seemed to us wholly satisfactory, as overlapping, to too great an extent, the examinations of the Science and Art Department in applied mechanics, machine construction, and steam. But in future the examination will consist of two parts, one of which will be distinctly specialized with a view to the candidate's occupation. Moreover, in the honours grade, candidates will be required to undergo a practical examination in either machine designing or workshop practice. At the last examination in this subject 966 candidates presented themselves, of whom 536 passed. It is satisfactory to note the continuous increase in the number of candidates in plumbers' work, a trade in the successful practice of which every householder is interested. In this subject a high standard for passing is wisely maintained. Of the 816 candidates who presented themselves, 235 came up for the practical part of the examination, and of these only 85 succeeded in passing in both parts of the examination, and are qualified for certificates.

There is little doubt that the statistics furnished in this report go far to show that a high value is attached by artizans and their employers to the Institute's certifi

cates, and that the progress of technical education has been advanced by the cautious and judicious manner in which the Institute has conducted this department of its operations.

ROBERT GRANT.

IN Robert Grant, who at the ripe age of seventy-eight died at the place of his birth, Grantown-on-Spey, on October 24, 1892, science loses one of her ablest historians. His education was interrupted by a serious illness, which confined him to his bed from his fourteenth to his twentieth year. With surprising energy, however, on his recovery he set about the study of mathematics and the acquisition of ancient and modern languages. After studying for a time at King's College, Aberdeen, he went to London to collect materials for a history of physical astronomy. Thence he proceeded to Paris in 1845, where for two years he attended the lectures of Arago at the Observatory, and those of Leverrier and others at the Sorbonne. Returning to London, he lost little time in beginning the great work with which his name will always be associated. It was published in numbers, the first of which appeared in September, 1848, but it was not until March, 1852, that the whole work was issued. It bears the title "History of Physical Astronomy from the Earliest Ages to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century, comprehending a detailed account of the establishment of the Theory of Gravitation by Newton, and its development by his successors; with an exposition of the progress of research in all the other subjects of Celestial Physics." Most completely do the contents of the volume fulfil every expectation raised by this comprehensive programme. The fame of its author was at once established. Four years later he received from the hands of the late Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, President of the Royal Astronomical Society, the gold medal, then for the first time awarded for literary service to astronomical science One paragraph of the address delivered on that occasion may here be quoted as characterizing most justly the work as well as its author: "Throughout the book no one can fail to be struck with the rare skill, integrity, and discernment the author has displayed in tracing the successive stages of progress; or with the scrupulous care he has taken to assign to each of the great men whom he reviews their proper share in the common labour. Nowhere is this more conspicuous than in the discussion relative to the discovery of the planet Neptune. By a simple narration of facts he has placed the history of that great event in so clear and so true a light, that I believe I am not wrong in saying he has gained an author's highest praise under such circumstances-the approval of both the eminent persons concerned." Even now, forty years after its publication, the "History" has lost none of its value as a mine of information, and as a delightful guide to those who desire to make a closer acquaintance with the astronomers of the past, as well as their works.

For some time Mr. Grant edited the "Monthly Notices" of the Royal Astronomical Society, and was a member of their Council. In conjunction with the late Admiral Smyth, he translated and edited Arago's "Popular Astronomy " (2 vols. 1855 and 1858). Meanwhile his health had so far improved that in 1858 he was able to go through a course of observational astronomy at Greenwich Observatory. In the following year, on the death of Prof. J. Pringle Nichol, he was appointed Professor of Astronomy, and director of the Observatory in the University of Glasgow.

As a member of the party that went to Spain in the troop-ship Himalaya, to observe the total solar eclipse of July 18, 1860, Prof. Grant, from his station near Vittoria, had the satisfaction of seeing a portion of the chromosphere, the existence of which as a thin layer en

veloping the photosphere he had abundantly demonstrated in the winter of 1850-51, from a discussion of all the observations extant ("History," pp. 395, 396). It can excite no surprise that Prof. Grant assumed the red layer and also the prominences to shine by reflected light, when it is recollected that the sun's light and heat were then supposed to originate wholly in the photosphere while the nucleus was thought to be so cool as possibly to be habitable. When Prof. Grant took charge of the Glasgow Observatory the only useful instrument he found was the transit-circle by Ertel and Son, of Munich, but through the liberality of a few friends, chiefly in Glasgow, a nine-inch Cooke Equatorial was added to the Observatory some years afterwards. After thoroughly testing observations of Mercury, Neptune, the minor planets, and a selection of stars from the British Association Catalogue. Gradually, however, his attention was concentrated entirely on the stars. the list being correspondingly expanded. The observations of planets were communicated from time to time to the Astronomische Nachrichten or to the "Monthly Notices."

the transit-circle the new director commenced a series of

The stellar observations were published at the expense of her Majesty's Government in 1883 in the well-known "Catalogue of 6415 Stars for the epoch 1870, deduced from Observations made at the Glasgow University Observatory during the years 1860 to 1881, preceded by a Synopsis of the Annual Results of each Star arranged

in the order of Right Ascension."

In the introduction will be found a discussion of the Proper Motions of 99 stars. A very complete and appreciative review of this work from the pen of Prof. Auwers of Berlin appeared in the Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronomischen Gesellschaft (19 Jahrgang). The Glasgow star places were at once looked on with confidence by the numerous observers of comets and minor planets. One point connected with the Catalogue deserves special mention, viz. that, although the observations from which it is derived extend over a space of twenty-one years, the work appeared within two years of the close of the series. This promptitude excites the greater admiration when we learn that, exclusive of Prof. Grant's personal share in the work, no less than thirteen young assistants at various times took part in the observations, and two others in the computations. Many of these personal changes, each of which brought its quota of extra work to Prof. Grant, were no doubt in some measure due to the smallness of the allowance provided for assistance, viz. £100 per annum Prof. Grant, however, was the last man to waste his energies in useless complaint, and dismisses this point with the remark that "in recent years the work of scrutinizing, reducing to a common epoch, and combining together the vast mass of the observations of the catalogue, extending over a period of more than twenty-one years, has pressed very heavily upon the slender resources of the observatory." The important time service of the City of Glasgow was originated by Prof. Grant some thirty years ago, and continues in operation up to the present moment. In 1855 he received from the University of Aberdeen the degree of M.A., followed by that of the honorary LL.D. in 1865, in which latter year he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. For three years he presided over the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, to whose proceedings he made various contributions. It may also be noted that among his writings are two remarkable letters proving beyond a shadow of a doubt the spurious character of the pretended Pascal correspondence. These letters were printed in the Comptes Rendus by special permission of the French Academy.

In manner Prof. Grant was singularly vivacious, and to the last he greeted with the warmest enthusiasm every fresh discovery in the science to which his life was devoted. R. C.

NOTES.

THE following is the list of names recommended by the President and Council of the Royal Society for election into the Council

for the year 1893. The ballot will take place at the anniversary meeting on November 30 :-President, The Lord Kelvin, D. C. L., LL.D.; treasurer, Sir John Evans, K. C. B., D.C.L., I.L.D.; secretaries, Prof. Michael Foster, The Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L. ; foreign secretary, Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D.; other members of the Council, Captain William de Wiveleslie Abney, C. B., Sir Benjamin Baker, K. C. M. G., LL. D., Prof. Isaac Bayley Bal four, William Thomas Blanford, Prof. George Carey Foster, Richard Tetley Glazebrook, Frederick Ducane Godman, John Hopkinson, Prof. Joseph Norman Lockyer, F.R.A.S., Prof. John Gray McKendrick, William Davidson Niven, William Henry Perkin, LL.D., Rev. Prof. B. Price, The Marquess of Salisbury, K.G., Adam Sedgwick, Prof. William Augustus Tilden.

AN international subscription for a testimonial to M. Pasteur on the occasion of his seventieth birthday on December 27 is to be opened by the French Academy of Science. Many men of science in all parts of the world will be glad to have this opportunity of expressing their high appreciation of M. Pasteur's labours.

posed to edit a number of very remarkable letters and memoirs

SOME time ago we announced that Baron Nordenskiöld pro

of Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who died in 1786. It has now been decided that the one hundred-and-fiftieth anniversary of the birth of this great Swedish chemist, on December 9, shall be made the occasion of a brilliant celebration in his native country. A monument to Scheele is to be unveiled in Stockholm.

THE Naturforschende Gesellschaft of Danzig are issuing invitations to the celebration of the 150th anniversary of their foundation on January 2 and 3, 1893. The meetings will take place on the Monday evening in the Friedrich-Wilhelm-Schützenhaus, and on the Tuesday morning in the large hall of the Landeshaus, and the proceedings will wind up on the latter day with a dinner at 4 p.m. in the Schützenhaus.

PROF. EDWARD PRINCE, of Glasgow, has been offered the important post of Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries for Canada by the Dominion Government, and has accepted the office. Prof. Prince is well known as an authority in Fishery Science. He holds the chair of Zoology in St Mungo's College, Glasgow, and is President of the Anderson's College Scientific Society, and Vice-President of the Glasgow Natural History Society.

It is announced that the King of Italy will open in person the International Medical Congress, which is to be held in Rome next year. An English committee is being formed to do what it can to secure the success of the Congress.

THE New York Academy of Sciences has organized a Biological Section, which is to hold monthly meetings. The opening meeting, at which Prof. H. F. Osborn presided, was held on October 17.

THE Victoria University has issued a list of University Extension lectures which are to be delivered in the course of the session 1892-93. They are to be given at many different centres, and include a wide range of subjects, among which various departments of physical and natural science hold a prominent place.

LIVERPOOL has sustained a real loss by the death of Mr. T. J. Moore, the late curator of the Liverpool Derby Museum. Mr. Moore had a wide knowledge of various branches of science, and did much to foster popular interest in the results of scientific inquiry. He died on October 31.

DURING the latter part of last week the weather continued very unsettled, the depressions which advanced from the Atlantic causing strong southerly winds or gales in many places, with frequent and heavy rain, while the temperature was uniformly high for the time of year, the daily maxima reaching nearly 60° in the southern parts, and exceeding 50° in the northern parts of the kingdom. On Saturday night a considerable decrease of temperature occurred, owing to the advance of an anti-cyclone which subsequently spread over most of the country; the southerly winds gradually disappeared, and were succeeded by calm and variable airs. In the early part of the present week fog became prevalent in many parts of England, but the weather was generally fair with frosts over the inland districts. On Tuesday, however, fresh depressions were passing along our northwest coasts, and rain squalls became general over Ireland and Scotland, while southerly winds again became prevalent. The Weekly Weather Report, issued on the 5th instant, showed that the rainfall greatly exceeded the mean in the east and south of England, while in Scotland and the northern parts of England the fall was below the average. Since the beginning of the year, the eastern, Midland, and north-west districts of England have had three inches of rainfall in excess of the normal amount, while in the south-west of England there is a deficiency of 7'6 inches.

THE U.S. Hydrographic Office has issued a chart showing the submarine cables of the world, with their principal land connec tions. The chart is described by Goldthwaite's Geographical Magazine as a necessity to foreign commerce. It contains tables for the computation of rates to any part of the world.

THE November number of the Kew Bulletin contains sections on coffee cultivation in British Honduras, the prune industry of California, sugar cane borers in the West Indies, sisal hemp industry in Yucatan, Liberian coffee in the Malay native states, and Bombay aloe fibre. There are also miscellaneous notes, from one of which botanists will be glad to learn that after many unsuccessful attempts to introduce living examples of the interesting plant, Dischidia rafflesiana, Kew has at last succeeded, thanks mainly to the generosity of Dr. Treub, the distinguished director of the Botanic Gardens, Java, who sent a plant of it in a Wardian case two years ago. This plant is now established and growing freely, producing numerous large pitcher-like leaves as well as the small normal hoya-like foliage. The morphological meaning of these pitchers has not yet been thoroughly worked out. "The species of dischidia all want a careful study. They cannot be described satisfactorily from dried specimens. The leaves change in form, and it is not ascertained in respect of many species whether they may or may not be converted into pitchers (ascidia)" (Hooker in "Flora of British India"). The plant at Kew is now under the special observation of Dr. Scott, hon. keeper of the Jodrell Laboratory. D. bengalensis is an old garden plant. It is cultivated at Kew in the Palm House. rafflesiana is for the present kept in one of the propagating pits. AT the opening meeting of the twelfth session of the Junior Engineering Society on November 4, an excellent address was delivered by the president, Dr. John Hopkinson, F.R. S., on the cost of electric supply. His general conclusion on the subject is that to be ready to supply a customer with electricity at any moment he wants it, will cost those giving the supply not much less than £11 per annum for every kilowatt, that is for every unit per hour; and afterwards to give the supply will not cost very much more than d. per unit. The clear apprehension of this point Dr. Hopkinson believes to be essential to the com. mercial success of electric supply. It is hopeless, he thinks, for electricity to compete with gas in this country all along the line, if price is the only consideration. But with selected customers, electricity is cheaper than gas. Surely, he adds, it is the inte

D.

rest of those who supply electricity to secure such customers by charging them a rate having some sort of relation to the cost of supplying them.

AN address delivered by Prof. Virchow at the opening of the recent International Congress of Archæology at Moscow i printed in the current number of the Revue Scientifique. Prof Virchow repeats in this address what he has often said before→ that no trace of "the missing link" between man and the lowe animals has been discovered either in the human skulls which art believed to be most ancient or in the physical organization d modern savages. He urges that the immediate task for anthrop ologists is to explain the origin of the existing human races, and to determine the causes by which these races, while retaining the power of hereditary transmission, have acquired their distinctive characteristics. At first sight, he says, it is easy to suppose that a dolichocephalic skull may be transformed into one of brachycephalic form; but it has not yet been shown that any dolichocephalic race has been actually transformed into a brachycephalic one, or vice versa. Prehistoric anthropology ought, he thinks, to find methods which would facilitate the recognition of the types of ancient races and peoples, and enable us to find them again among the races and peoples of the present day. It ought also, as occasion offers, to collect data with regard to those strange individual cases about which theories, as Dr. Virchow holds, have been prematurely formed, and which should be kept in "the scientific baggage" until we have secured intermediate links which will render it possible for us to unite

them in a series.

ACCORDING to an official report of Captain von François, the dromedaries which have been introduced into the German territories in South-west Africa in connection with the parcel post service have more than fulfilled the expectations that had been formed about them. The climate suits them, and they are not affected by any of the prevalent cattle diseases. Or the road between Lehuititang and Geinab they were six days without water, and on the seventh day, at Geinab, they did not seem to be very thirsty. In stony regions their feet do not, like those of unshod horses or oxen, suffer any injury. When loaded with a weight of 250 pounds, a dromedary advances at much the same rate as an ox-waggon. The only drawback connected with these useful creatures is that they are rather costly.

MR. A. E. DOUGLASS, first assistant at the Boydun station of the Harvard College Observatory, Arequipa, contributes an

interesting paper to Science, October 21, on indications of a rainy period in Southern Peru. There is evidence to show, he thinks, that for many thousands of years, going back far beyond the recognized period of human habitation, the climate of Pera has been very much as it is at present. That was preceded by a slow rise of the land out of the sea, which caused the climate to change from wet to dry. But under the wet climate the elevation of the land was still too great, and perhaps the duration of the epoch was too short, to produce a luxuriant tropical vegetation; otherwise there would be to-day extensive coalfields. The wet climate, however, was sufficient greatly to alter the face of the country. Lake Titicaca was of enormous area. fed perhaps by the melting glaciers. In the almost continuous rainy season, huge turbid rivers roared and tumbled down these western slopes of the Cordillera, while on each mountain summit vast quantities of snow fell, only to pursue its way down the steep slopes, carving out valleys, building up ridges, and by its melting wearing out deep ravines, which grow smaller as they become lost in the broad level plain below. Under such luxuriance of moisture the valley of Arequipa must have teemed with animal and vegetable life, the barren hills to the south were clothed in green, and the desert of La Joya blossomed like a garden.

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