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gring around the smaller circle are carved with curious ematical devices and figures"; whilst Mr. Maclonald inms as that on the Bora ground of the Page and Isis River Natives, as many as a hundred and twenty marked trees occur rond about (Journ. Anthrop. Inst. Gt. Brit. Ireland, 1878, vii., P. 256). Confirmation is further afforded by Mr. W. O. Higkinson, who saw a Bora ground on the Macleay River with trees minutely tatooed, and carved to such a considerable altitude that he could not help feeling astonished at the labour bestowed on the work " (Smyth, "Aborigines of Victoria, 1878," i.. p. 292).

If, as previously stated, according to current report, the designs on the trees be the same as those on the 'possum rugs, the transfer of them to the trees surrounding a grave must have had some important and lasting meaning to the survivors. The figures on the rug may have indicated some degree of ownership, a crest, coat of arms, or monogram, as it were, and in such a case the reproduction on the trees surrounding a grave may be looked upon as an identification of the deceased. Henderson speaks of the tree carvings as symbols. "A symbol is afterwa ds carved upon the nearest tree, which seems to indicate the particular tribe to which the individual may have belonged ("Obs. Colonies of N. S. Wales and V. D. Land, 1832," p. 149). Or had they a deeper esoteric meaning, one only known to the learned men of the tribe? Smyth states ("Aborigines of Victoria, 1878," i., p. 288) that the figures on the inner sides of the 'possum rugs were the same as those on their weapons, namely, the herring-bone, chevron, and saltier." How easily these same devices can be traced, in a general way, both on the carved trees and some of the wooden weapons, is amply shown by many of the excellent figures given in Smyth's work. This painstaking author, in briefly dealing-too briefly, in fact-with this interesting subject, says (Ibid. p. 286. The italics are mine): "The natives of the Murray and the Darling, and those in other parts adjacent, carved on the trees near the tombs of deceased warriors strange figures having meanings no doubt intelligible to all the tribes in the vast area watered by these rivers." By the Kamilarai (T. Honery, Journ. Anthrop. Inst. Gt. Brit. and Ireland, 1878, vii., p. 254) they were regarded as 66 memorials of the dead.

It is much to be regretted that before the last remnant of this fast-disappearing race has passed away, a translation, or at any rate an explanation of these matters, cannot be obtained.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

2

American Journal of Science, April.-Distance of the stars by Doppler's principle, by G. W. Colles, Jun. This principle may be applied to the calculation of the distances of stars in the manner suggested by Fox Talbot and discussed by Prof. Rambaut. If the velocity of a component of a binary star be measured spectroscopically when it is moving in the line of sight, and its orbit be studied by means of the micrometer, the velocity at any point of the orbit, and hence also the size of the orbit, may be determined. This, divided by its angular magnitude, gives the distance of the system. From theoretical considerations the author calculates the ratio of the mean velocity across the line of sight of a large number of stars distributed equally over the celestial sphere to their mean velocity along the line of sight, and finds this ratio to be. He then shows that the mean distance of all these stars will be approximately arrived at by multiplying this ratio by the sum of the observed velocities in the line of sight, and dividing by the sum of the observed corresponding angular velocities. Calculating from observations of ninety-five stars in the northern hemisphere, a mean distance of 1509 light years is obtained, or, taking Vogel's observations only, 80 5 light years.-The radiation and absorption of heat by leaves, by Alfred Goldsborough Mayer. Two leaves of the same species of plant were each glued upon one of the polished tin sides of a Leslie cube. One of the leaves was then painted over with dead-black, and the cube was filled with water kept at 40° C. The radiation from the two leaves was measured by means of a thermopile. It was found that almost all the leaves radiated as well as lampblack. The effect of a thin film of dew was to reduce the radiation to 78 per cent, and to 66 per cent. if the dew stood out in beads upon the surface. The absorption of dark heat rays by leaves interposed as a diaphragm was found to be highly selective. A single elm leaf transmitted 20 per cent. of the radiant heat. A second leaf

transmitted 78 per cent. of this, and a third over 83 per cent. of that transmitted by the second. Wild cherry leaves transmitted 9 per cent., and chicory 4 per cent. more heat when their chlorophyll was abstracted by ether or alcohol. Also papers by Messrs. H. L. Wheeler, W. P. Headden, W. H. Melville, J. F Kemp, E. A. Smith, R. T. Hill, M. I. Pupin, F. A. Gooch, and P. E. Browning.

THE most important article in the Botanical Gazette for December, 1892, is the one to which we have already alluded, in which Mr. R. Thaxter proposes the establishment of a new order of Schizomycetes with the name Myxobacteriaceae. In that an 1 the following numbers (January-March, 1893) Prof. D. H. Campbell gives his account, most of which we have reprinted, of his visit to the Hawaiian Islands; Mr. G. W. Martin completes his description of the development of the flower and embryo-sac in Aster and Solidago; Mr. F. B. Maxwell gives a comparative study of the roots of Ranunculaceæ, in which he makes three types of structure on the basis of the changes which take place through secondary growth. Mr. A. Schneider has a note on the influence of anesthetics on the transpiration of plants; he finds that both this function and the vitality of protoplasm are both retarded by the action of ether, the protoplasm being finally killed. Prof. J. E. Humphrey gives a full account of the life history of Monilia fructigena, a parasitic fungus which causes great destruction of pears and stone-fruit in America. In an article on non-parasitic bacteria in vegetable tissue Mr. H. L. Russell sums up his conclusion that vegetable, like animal tissues, are normally free from micro-organisms, but that in healthy vegetable tissues many species of bacteria are able to exist for a not inconsiderable length of time. We have also articles describing new species of flowering plants discovered on the American continent, and a résumé of the botanical papers read at the New Orleans meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

IN the numbers of the Journal of Botany from January to April the articles of most general interest, in addition to the continuation of others already noticed, are:-A list of the Mycetozoa of South Beds and North Herts, by Mr. Jas. Saunders; Dr. M. T. Masters, on some cases of inversion, in which he gives illustrations of the reversal of the normal relative position of organs or of elements of tissues; a provisional list of the marine alge of the Cape of Good Hope, by Miss E. S. Barton ;, a list of the mosses of Guernsey, by Mr. E. D. Marquand; notes on Scotch freshwater alga, by Mr. W. West, in which two new species are described; notes on the British species of Campylopus, a genus of Musci, by Mr. H. N. Dixon. Under the head of Laboratory Notes," Mr. S. Le M. Moore describes the best way of making Millon's reagent; a new way of demonstrating continuity of protoplasm (Millon's fluid); and the action of cold Millon's fluid on iron-greening tannins, and on cell walls giving proteid reactions.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
LONDON.

Royal Society, February 2.-"A New Portable Miner's Safety-lamp, with Hydrogen attachment for delicate Gastesting; with exact Measurements of Flame cap indications furnished by this and by other Testing lamps." By Prof. Frank Clowes, D.Sc (Lond.), University College, Nottingham.

The author, availing himself of his "test-chamber," already described in the Proc. Roy. Soc. vols. 1. li. has examined the indications of fire damp furnished by the different safetylamps at present in use for testing purposes. These lamps include the ordinary oil-lamp, the Pieler alcohol lamp, the Ashworth benzoline lamp, and the hydrogen-oil lamp, recently devised by the author.

The introduction of a standard hydrogen gas-testing flame into an ordinary oil safety-lamp was first effected by the auther, and was described by him in the papers referred to above. Bat has now been brought into a far more convenient and portable form; the most recent development of the lamp is described and explained by illustrations in the present paper. The hydrogen gas is stored in a little pocket steel cylinder, under about 100 atmospheres pressure: this can be immediately attached to the safety-lamp when required, and can be made to furnish a standard 10 millimetre hydrogen flame which will burn continuously for forty minutes from the cylinder-supply. The hydrogen is kindled from the oil-flame, without opening the

:

lamp and proves to be equal in delicacy and accuracy of testing to Liveing's indicator and other forms of apparatus of precision at present in use. The lamp presents the great advantage of serving at once for lighting, for ordinary gastesting by the oil-flame, and for most accurate and delicate testing by means of the hydrogen flame.

The paper gives full statements of the results of the flame-cap measurements of the new lamp, and of the lamps mentioned above.

The general conclusions to be drawn from these measurements, and from experience derived from working with the different lamps, are the following:

(1) The indications of the Pieler lamp begin at the lowest limit of o 25 per cent., but quickly become too great to be utilised. The thread-like tip extending above the flame for several inches in pure air must not be mistaken for a cap, but it is scarcely distinguishable from the cap given by o‘25 per cent. of gas.

This lamp suffers under the disadvantage that much of the feeble light of the caps is lost by the obstruction of the gauze : the gauze also frequently presents a bright reflecting surface behind the flame, and this renders the observation of the cap impossible. All the other lamps in use are free from these interferences due to the gauze, and if their glasses are blackened behind internally by smoking them with a taper they become well suited for the observation of caps.

(2) The Ashworth benzoline lamp begins its indications doubtfully at 0'5 per cent., the cap thus produced being more distinct, but not greater in height, than the mantle of the flame seen in gas free air.

But starting with certainty with an indication of 1 per cent., it gives strikingly regular indications up to 6 per cent., and even higher percentages may be read off in a lamp with a long glass. (3) The standard 10 mm. hydrogen flame gives distinct indications from o 25 to 3 per cent.; the cap then becomes too high for measurement in the lamp; but by reducing the flame to 5 mm., cap readings may be taken up to 6 per cent. of gas.

The lower indications may similarly be increased by raising the flame to 15 mm.

(4) The oil flame produced by unmixed colza oil gives no indications with percentages below 2. With per cent. of gas the flame from colza mixed with an equal volume of petroleum water-white) produces an apparent cap, which, though somewhat more intense than the natural mantle seen in gas-free air, is only equal to this mantle in dimensions, and might easily be

mistaken for it.

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obtained.

A carefully regulated oil flame may, therefore, conveniently supplement the hydrogen flame for the indication of gas varying from 3 to 6 per cent., and in the new hydrogen lamp this will be found to be a convenient method to adopt.

The use of colza alone in the oil-lamp is very inconvenient for gas-testing the wick quickly chars and hardens on the top, and cannot then be reduced without danger of extinctin; it can never be obtained satisfactorily in a non-luminous condition. The admixture with petroleum obviates these difficulties.

The use of the hydrogen flame for gas-testing has been proposed, but has never been hitherto carried into practice in an ordinary safety lamp. Careful comparison proves this flame to be superior to the alcohol flame and to all other flames at present suggested. Its indications have never been carefully observed and measured before; they are carefully summarised in the present paper.

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completion of the test; whereas other testing flames are constansly varying in dimensions, and most of them cannot be set to standard size at all with any certainty.

Thus a colza-petroleum flame exposed in air containing a low percentage of gas when twice adjusted gave caps of 8 and of 20 mm. The reduced oil flame often fell so quickly that capreadings with low percentages of gas could not be taken at all. (3) The caps produced over the hydrogen flame are larger than those produced by any flame of corresponding size.

(4) The size of the hydrogen flame can therefore be so far reduced as to enable it to be used in an ordinary safety-lamp.

The size of the flame may further be suitably varied so as to increase or decrease the height of the cap and thus either increase the delicacy of the test or extend its range.

(5) The hydrogen flame shows no trace of mantle or cap in air free from gas; it resembles the Pieler flame in showing only a slender thread above its apex. The colza-petroleum and the benzoline flames show pale mantles in gas-free air, which may be easily mistaken for a small percentage of gas.

(6) The standard hydrogen flame burns vigorously, it is of fair size, and cannot be extinguished by accident; whereas the reduced flames ordinarily used in testing burn feebly and are readily lost.

(7) Hydrogen is supplied pure and of practically invariable composition; whereas oil and alcohol are apt to vary much in composition, and therefore to give flames whose indications vary with the sample of liquid which is being burnt.

It should be noted that the hydrogen flame is set to standard size in the presence of the gas, and therefore yields accurate indications in any atmosphere in which the test is made.

The paper gives full descriptions of the method pursued for obtaining accurate flame-cap measurements in this research. The indications furnished by the new lamp in air containing coal gas and water-gas are also tabulated; and it is shown that these gases are readily detected when present in small proportions in the air, and their amount is accurately determined. The lamp shows equal delicacy and accuracy in the detection and estimation of petroleum vapour in the air.

When used for the detection of fire-damp the amount of fine coal-dust ordinarily present in the air of the mine caused no interference with the test. The lamp had been proved by use in the coal-mine to be thoroughly practical and easy in its application to gas-testing.

February 16.-"Further Experiments on the Action of Light on Bacillus anthracis,' IV. By H. Marshall Ward, D. Sc., F. R.S., Professor of Botany, Royal Indian Engineering College, Coopers Hill.

The author has continued his experiments, proving that the light of a winter sun and that of the electric arc rapidly destroy the life of the spores of the anthrax bacillus, and showing that the bactericidal action is really direct, and not due to elevation of temperature, or to any indirect poisoning or starving process incident on changes in the food materials. The evidence goes to prove that the effect is chiefly if not entirely due to the rays of higher refrangibility in the blue-violet of the spectrum.

The experiments have been continued with special reference to these latter points, and confirm the general conclusions in every detail. Not only so, but the further results prove that the inhibitory and deadly effects of direct insolation are not confined to Bacillus anthracis, but also extend to other bacteria and even to the Fungi; and throw some light on several problems which have presented themselves during previous investigations.

Experiments with Coloured Screens of Various Kinds.

The author described experiments made during December to February with coloured screens of various kinds; premising that the methods employed in preparing and exposing the plates, &c., have been the same as those referred to in the previous communication.

The results show that when plates are exposed for equal periods behind screens transmitting blue and violet rays, and behind screens which cut off those rays, the spores on the former are killed, whereas no bactericidal action occurs on the latter. Experiments with Spores and Food Material on Separate

Plates.

In order to test still further the accuracy of previous con. clusions, that the bactericidal action of the sunlight is direct,

in foot lue to secondary effee s, owing to changes in the food za, e flowing modifications of the experiments were ... ani viebled most instant and conclusive poofs ...... katiera,sofagh youth spes, and not lue a secondary actions owing to changes in the fool mverials. aapiates, for instance, of dried spores only are male, an 1 #dagar only, all as before. Then one plate of each kind is exposed to the ligh', an 1 the others are kept in the dark.

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A 'er exposure, the sit and most film of non ex sesal agar is removed from its own plate, and super est on the exposed f ́n of spores in situ. Reciprocally, the film of exposed agar is rested, and super posed on t'i non exposed fion of dried spores. This prevents any wash or displacement, and ensures at the same time that the agar shall present in contact with the spores, hat face which was next the source of light.

So far no appreciable effect on the agar has been observed, hough the dried spores exposed for an equal period are killed in abundance, as shown by the figure which comes out on

Liture.

Preliminary Results with the Spores of Fungi.

Pesult, substantially the same as the above are obtainable with other Schizomycetes, but it was interesting to see whether anything of kind occurs with the spores of true Fungi. The me of year has, for many reasons, been unfavourable for vely numerous experiments, but the results so far are extremely encouraging, and should give a stimulus to close inquiry into the

whole subject.

The following species have been examined :-Penicillium rustaccion, Aspergillus glaucus, Botrytis cinerea, Chalara mycoderma, Oidium lactis, Nectria cinnabarina, Mucor racemo.us, Sa charomyces pyriformis, and a "Stysanus" conidial form met with some months ago as a saprophyte on Pandanus.

On making agar and gelatine plates of these as before, positive re uits were obtained with Oidium (5 cases), Chalara (i case), sacchar myces (4 cases), Stysanus (2 cases), and negative results with Aspergillus (5 cases), Penicillium (2 cases), Mucor (2 cases), Nectria (4 cases), and Botrytis (2 cases).

It seems worth noting that, in all the forms which have given a posi ive result right off, the spores, as seen in masses, are ither hyaline and colourless, or, in the case of the Stysanus, with a faint tinge of buff; whereas those which gave negative results are either of some very pronounced colour, as Aspergillus, Penicilium, and N.ctria, or (Mucor and Botrytis) of a dull, ellow brown hue.

After some theoretical considerations, some practical bearings of the results are thus referred to :

The establishment of the fact of the bactericidal and fungicidal action of light, dating from Downes and Blunt to now, enables is to see much more clearly into the causes of several phenonen known to practical agriculturists, foresters, hygienists, &c. It helps to explain, for example, why the soil of a forest should not be exposed to the sun, a dogma long taught in schools; it will also effect our way of regarding bare fallows. It has already been shown how important is its bearing on the purification of rivers, and the reasoning obviously applies to dwellings, owni, &c. The author regards it as probably explaining many discrepancies in the cultures of Schizomycetes and Fungi in our aboratories, and as having a very important bearing indeed on The spreading of plant epidemics in dull weather in the summer, and no doubt this applies to other cases.

That sunshine has something to do with the rarity of bacterial liseases in plants now seems quite as probable as the currently accepted view that the acid nature of the latter accounts for the fact.

If that part of the chlorophyll which absorbs the blue-violet is a screen to prevent the destruction of easily oxidisable bodies, as they are formed in the chloroplasts, we may reconcile several old experimental discrepancies-e.g. the behaviour of plants ander bichromate and cupric oxide screens.

The author concludes from his experiments, and from numer ous other considerations given in the paper, that the colours of spores, pollen grains, &c., are of the nature of colour screens, and is led to put forward the following hypothesis :

No plant exposes a reserve store of fatty food materials to the danger of prolonged or inten e in lations without a protective colour-screen, calculated to cut out at least the blue violet rays, as these rays would otherwise de trop the reserve substance by pronoting its rapid oxidation.

"Studies in the Morphology of Spore producing Ken ens. Preliminary Statement on the Equise'acts an : 2262 11. By F. O. Bower, D.Sc, F.R., Regus Bralessor of Botany in the University of Glasgow.

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Still maintaining the same general view- as were put Drward in my preliminary stateme t on the LATOPOIE aci O, hioglossaceae (Roy. Soc. Proc., vo investigated other types from among the Vascular Crypogams as regards the development of their spore-producing mez hers, Taking first the Equisetace, the development of the sporangia has been closely followed by Goebe. tin. r. how. ever, difficult to accept his conclusions as the typolermal origin of the archesporium. On following the eary phases of development in El. arvense, the sperat, um is best to be eusporangia e, but the essential parts of the sprangen may be traced in origin to a single superficial ce... the cells satining this laterally contributing only to form the avera porices of the wall. The first division of this cell is per na: THE IMMO" resulting cell forms on'y a part of the sp ; the outer cell undergoes lurther segmentation. And by anodina), then by periclinal, walls, and the inner cent. **DUALI are added to the sporogenous tissue, and take part in No formatION The archesporium of Ep. arvense is thus show to be not of hypodermal origin in the strict sense; the same appears to be the case in Eq. limosum. Similar additions to the sour agenous tissue by early periclinal division of superfi... ces is only to be seen in Isoetes, and occasional cases, which are incalt to explain in any other way, have been observed some species of Lycopodium. It would thus appear that Goebel genera usation, that in all the Vascular Cryptogams which he invest gated a hypodermal arches porium exists, cannot be retained the strict sen-e. The tapetum is derived from the series of cells in bellately surrounding the sporogenous mass; it is, however, to the carefully distinguished from certain cells of the sporogen as mass, which also undergo an early disorganisation; for about one-third of the cells of the sporogenous mass do not form pores, bat serve physiologically as a diffused tapetum, yielding up their substance to nourish the other young developing spores.

The synangia of the Psilotace have given rise to vɔ'eminous di-cussions. Tmesipteris being the genus with the smaller stracture, it may be described firs'. In their earliest stages of development, as lateral outgrowths from the axis, the sporangiophores are not readily distinguishable from the foliage leaves in form or structure, while they occupy a similar position upon the axis. The first appearance of a synangium is as an upgrowth of superficial cells of the adaxial face of the sporangiopbore, immediately below its apex; meanwhile the cells of the abaxial side also grow strongly, while the apex itself does not grow so rapidly; so that the organic apex is soon sunk in a groove between these stronger growths. The superficial cells which are to form the synangium undergo periclinal and anticlinal divisions, to form about four layers of cells. All the cells of this tissue are at first very similar to one another, but later two sporogenous masses become differentiated; they are not, however, clearly defined while young from the sterile issue which forms the partition of the synangium, or from the wall. From the arrangement of the cells of these sporogenous masses it seems not improbable that each mass may be referable in origin to a single cell, but this has not been proved to be constantly the case. All the cells of the sporogenous tissue do not arrive at maturity, but here, as in Equisetum, a considerable number, serving as a diffused tapetum, become disorganised without forming spores. There is no clearly defined tapetum in 7 mest teris. The leaf lobes begin to be formed almost simultaneously with the synangium, and appear as lateral growths immediately below the apex of the sporangiophore; their further develop ment presents no characters of special note.

The synangium of Psilotum originates in essentially a similar manner, being formed from the upper surface of the sporangiophore, immediately below its apex.

On the ground of the observations of internal development, of which the above are the essential features, I agree with the conclusion of Solms that the whole sporangiophore of the Psilotaceæ is of foliar nature, and that the synangium is a growth from its upper surface.

In Lepidodendron the sporangium is very large; it is narrow and elongated in a radial direction, extending a considerable distance along the upper surface of the leaf. I have already communicated to the Society the fact that trabeculae extend in Leptoden dron from the base of the sporangium far up into the mass c

spores, and have compared these with the trabecula in the sporangium of Isoetes. Neither of these sporangia are, however, completely partitioned. I now suggest that comparatively slight modification of the condition in Lepidodendron would produce the state of things seen in Tmesipteris: if the sterile trabeculæ of Lepidodendron were consolidated into a transverse septum, and the apical growth of the sporophyll arrested and taken up by two lateral lobes, the result would be such as is seen in Tmesipteris. This is not a mere imaginative suggestion: it proceeds from the observed fact that the septum in Tmesipteris is indistinguishable at first from the sporogenous masses. It may further be noted, in connection with the above comparison between Lepidodendron and Tmesipteris, that the vascular tissues of some of the former appear to correspond more closely to those of Tmesipteris than to any other living plant.

Looking at the whole plants of the Psilotaceæ from the point of view above indicated, they are to be regarded as lax strobili, bearing sporangiophores (sporophylls) of rather complex structure. Branching, which is rare in Tmesipteris, is common in Psilotum, and is to be compared with the branching of the strobilus in many species of Lycopodium. In both there are irregularly alternating sterile and fertile zones, not unlike those of some species of Lycopodium; at the limits of these arrested sporangia are frequently found. It is not difficult to imagine how such plants as the Psilotaceæ may have originated from some strobiloid type, not unlike that of the genus Lycopodium. March 23. "The Absolute Thermal Conductivities of Copper and Iron." By R. Wallace Stewart, B.Sc. (London), Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics, University College, Bangor. Communicated by Lord Kelvin, P.R.S.

The experiments described in the paper were undertaken with the object of determining the thermal conductivity at different temperatures of iron, and, in particular, of pure, electrolytically deposited copper.

The method adopted was that due to Forbes, but the thermoelectric method of determining temperature was employed, and the bar was protected from currents of air and external radiation by surrounding it by a trough of sheet zinc.

The iron bar used was a square inch bar of ordinary wrought iron; the copper bar was a round-inch bar of pure electrolytic copper.

The variation of the specific heat of iron with the temperature was determined by Bunsen's calorimeter; for the specific heat of copper the result given by Bède was taken.

The range of temperature over which the observations extended was from 15° C. to about 220° C.

The final results obtained are indicated by the formulæ given below, and tend to show that for both copper and iron the conductivity decreases with rise of temperature.

Results for Iron in C. G.S. Units.

Diffusivity, K, at 1° C. is given by

KO'208 (1−0·0ɔ175′),

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K=1'370 (10'00125). k;= 1'391 (1 − 0 ̊001201).

The mean of these results is taken as

K=138 (10'0012),

exhibited some rare British plants from the co. Armagh, and gave an account of their local distribution.-A paper was then read by Mr. W. B. Hemsley on a collection of plants from the region of Lhassa, made by Surgeon-Captain Thorold in 1891, and a further collection from the Kuenlun plains made by Captain Picot in 1892. Some of the more interesting plants were exhibited, and critical remarks were offered by Messrs. C. B. Clarke, J. G. Baker, and Dr. Stapf.-Dr. H. C. Sorby gave a demonstration with the oxyhydrogen lantern and exhibited a number of slides which he had prepared of small marine organisms, many of them extremely beautiful, mounted transparently so as to show the internal structure.

Entomological Society, April 12.-Mr. Frederic Merrifield, Vice-President, in the chair.-Sir John T. Dillwyn Llewelyn, Bart., exhibited a number of specimens of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera, all caught in Glamorganshire. The Lepidoptera included two remarkable varieties of Vanessa io, both obtained from the same brood of larvæ from which the usual eye like spots in the hind wings were absent; varieties of Arctia menthastri; a long series of melanic and other forms of Boarmia repandata and Tephrosia crepus cularia; and bleached forms of Geometra papilionaria. The Coleoptera included specimens of Prionus coriarius, Pyrochroa coccinea, Otiorhynchus sulcatus, and Astynomus ædilis, a large species of Longicornia, which Sir John Llewelyn stated had been handed to him by colliers, who obtained them from the wooden props used in the coal mines, made out of timber imported from the Baltic. Mr. Merrifield, Dr. Sharp, F.R.S., and Mr. Stevens made some remarks on the specimens. - Sir John T. D. Llewelyn inquired whether the name of the moth which had a sufficiently long proboscis to fertilise the large Madagascan species of Orchis, Angræcum sesquipedale, was known. Mr. C. O. Waterhouse stated that the collections received at the British Museum from Madagascar had been examined with the view to the discovery of the species, but up to the present it had not been identified.-Mr. H. Goss exhibited, for Mr. Frank W. P. Dennis, of Bahia, Brazil, several nests of Trap-door Spiders, containing living specimens of the spider, and read a communication from Mr. Dennis on the subject. Several photographs of the nests and the spiders were also exhibited. It was stated that Mr. Dennis had found these nests at Bahia in one spot only in a cocoa-nut grove close by the sea. -Mr. McLachlan, F.R S., read a paper entitled "On species of Chrysopa observed in the Eastern Pyrenees; together with descriptions of, and notes on, new or little-known Palearctic forms of the genus. The author stated that the species referred to in this paper had been observed by him in the Eastern Pyrenees, in July, 1886, when staying with Mons. René Oberthür. After describing the nature of the district, and its capabilities from an entomological point of view, the paper concluded with descriptions of certain new palearctic species of the genus. Dr. Sharp, who said that he was acquainted with the district, and Mr. Merrifield made some remarks on the paper.

PARIS.

and the value of the absolute conductivity, k, is then given by pound excitation, by M. Paul Hoho.

k=1'10 (10'000531).

A table is given at the end of the paper showing the emissive power of the surface of each bar at temperatures between 20 ̊C. and 200° C.

Linnean Society, April 6.-Prof. Stewart, President, in the chair. The President took occasion to refer to the great loss which botanical science had sustained by the death, on April 4, of Prof. Alphonse de Candolle of Geneva, an announcement which was received with profound regret. Prof. de Candolle was the senior foreign member of this Society, having been elected in May 1850, and was the recipient of the Society's Gold Medal in 1889.-Mr. Clement Reid exhibited and made some remarks upon the fruit of a South European Maple (Acer monspessulanum) from an interglacial deposit on the Hampshire coast.-Mr. R. Lloyd Præger, who was present as a visitor,

Academy of Sciences, April 10.-M. Loewy in the chair. -The deaths were announced of Vice-Amiral Pâris and M. Alphonse de Candolle.-On the extinction of torrents and the replanting of the highlands, by M. P. Demontzey. A report on the work done since 1883 towards securing the south of France from its periodical inundation by mountain torrents.On the loss of electric charge in diffused light and in darkness, by M. Édouard Branly.-Dynamo-electric machinery with comIf a curve be constructed showing how the magnetic excitation of a dynamoelectric machine ought to vary in order that the E. M. F. may remain constant, or may vary according to a given law, it is possible to contrive an excitation such that, if it be also expressed by a curve, the latter will cut the former in any number of points required. Between these points of intersection the two curves nearly coincide. Hence it is possible to produce currents which, between certain limits, do not vary with the speed of the engine. This has been practically realised by means of two separate exciter circuits.-On anomalous dispersion, by M. Salvator Bloch.-General conditions to be fulfilled by registering instruments or indicators; problem of integral synchronisation, by M. A. Blondel. All the instruments in question consist essentially of a movable piece (needle, pencil, membrane, or mirror) susceptible of rectilinear or circular displacement under the simultaneous influence of a

and copious secretion had taken place. When he now subjected the foot of a cat to an air-pressure far exceeding that of the blood, secretion of sweat was observed on stimulation of the sciatic nerve. On the other hand, when the foot was subjected to a considerably reduced (negative) air-pressure, no formation of sweat was observed. Both these facts are opposed to the filtrational theory of sweat-secretion. Varnishing the skin did not prevent the secretion of sweat resulting from stimulation of nerves or administration of pilocarpine.

BOOKS-Sun, Moon, and Stars. 20th Thousand: A. Giberne (Seeley) — The Field Naturalist's Handbook: Revs. J. G. Wood and T. Wood (Cassell). A Manual of Dyeing, 3 vols.: E. Knecht. C. Rawson, and R. Loewenthal (Griffin).-A Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, vol. 3: Prof. T. E. Thorpe (Longinans).-The Iron Ores of Great Britain and Ireland: J. D. Kendall (C. Lockwood).-The Glacial Nightmare andth: Flood, 2 vols. Sir H. H. Howorth (S. Low).-Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1885-86: J. W. Powell (Washington).-Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. 7 (Washington).

PAMPHLETS.-Bibliography of the Athapascan Languages: J. C. Pilling (Washington).-A List of some of the Rotifera of Ireland: Miss Glascott (Dublin).

force proportional to the physical quantity to be measured, an opposing force sensibly proportional to the displacement, the inertia of the moving parts, and the damping force, usually proportional to the velocity. The desideratum is that the periodic motion of the moving piece should follow a law as closely approaching that of the phenomenon as posible, so that the deflection may at any instant depart as little as possible from a value equal to the ratio of the force to be measured and the opposing force. This the inventor of the "oscillographi calls the problem of integral synchronisation, from its analogy to that of simple synchronisation investigated by M. Cornu. —An expression is given for the value below which the damping effect, BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVED. though made as small as possible, should not be allowed to fall.On the volatility of manganese, by M. S. Jordan.-Determination of atomic weights by the limit method, by M. G. Hinrichs.-On nitrogenised copper, by MM. Paul Sabatier and J. B. Senderens. Several metals, when newly prepared by means of reduction of their oxides by hydrogen, are able to fix a large quantity of nitrogen peroxide in the cold. The resulting compounds have been termed nitrogenised metals (métaux nitrés). In the case of copper, a quantitative analysis of the compound has led to the formula Cu,NO, which corresponds to the fixation upon the metallic surface of the copper of about 1000 times its volume of peroxide at 30' C.-On the isomerism of the amido-benzoic acids, by M. Oechsner de Coninck. On phtalocyanacetic ether, by P. Th. Muller.On transpiration in herbaceous grafts, by M. Lucien Daniel.Exploration of the higher atmosphere; experiment of March 21, 1893, by M. Gustave Hermite. The balloon carrying the registering instruments was constructed of triple goldbeater's skin varnished, its volume being 113 cubic metres. The total weight of the apparatus carried was 17 kgr., including an automatic distributor of inquiry cards, working by a fuse. The ascensional force was 65 kgr., giving a vertical velocity of 8 or 9m. per second. The average velocity of descent was 2'4m., so that the instruments did not suffer. The balloon ascended at 12h. 25m. from Paris-Vaugirard, and landed at Chanvres (Yonne) at 7h. 11m. p.m. The lowest pressure registered was 103 mm., or less than one-seventh of an atmosphere, which corresponds to a height of about 16,000 m. The lowest temperature recorded was - 51° C. at 12,500 m., after which the curves of temperature and pressure were interrupted by the freezing of the recording ink. Subsequently, however, the intense solar radiation seems to have thawed the ink, so that the barometric record was taken up again at 16,000 m. and the thermometric curve at -21° C. The fuse ceased to burn after some time, probably owing to the lack of oxygen. The balloon could be followed with the naked eye for three quarters of an hour, within which it attained its highest altitude. It was white, and brightly illuminated by the sun.Odoriferous power of chloroform, bromoform, and iodoform, by M. Jacques Passy.-Observations on a series of new forms of snow, collected at very low temperatures, by M. Gustave Nordenskiold.

BERLIN.

I

SERIALS.-Bulletin of the New York Mathematical Society, vol. 2, No. 6 (New York).-Mineralogical Magazine, March (Simpkin). - Natural Science, April (Macmillan and Co.).-Journal of Geology, vol. 1, No. 1 (Chicago). Mind, April (Williams and Norgate). -Journal of the Roya! Agricultural Society, vol. 4. Part 1 (Murray). -Records of the Austrian Museum, vol. 2, No. 4 (Sydney) -Congrès Internationaux d'Anthropologie et d'Archéologie Préhistorique et de Zoologie à Moscou, 1892; Matériaux. première partie (Moscou).-Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, Band 6, Heft 1 (K. Paul).-Illustrations of the Zoology of H. M. Indian Marine Surveying Steamer Investigator-Part 1, Crustaceans: J. Wood-Mason Ditto, Part 1. Fishes: A. Alcock (Calcutta).-Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, December (Philadelphia) -Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, No. 104. vol. xxii. (Soon).-Engineering Magazine. April (New York).-Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xii. No. 1 (Cambridge, Wilson). Journal of the Roya Statistical Society, March (Stanford).—Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, April (Griffin).-Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, vol. 2. No. 2. Part 1 (Williams and Norgate) -Astronomy and Astro-Physics, Apri (Northfield, Minn.). -Annals of Scottish Natural History, April (Edin burgh, Douglas). -International Congress of Experimental Psychology. 2nd Session, London. 1892 (Williams and Norgate)-Balletin de la Société Astronomique de France, sixième année (Paris).-A Manual of Orchidateɔus Plants, Part 9 (Veitch).-Encyklopædie der Naturwissenschaften, Dritte Abthg., 13 Liefg., Zweite Abthg., 74 and 75 Liefg. (Brestu. Trewendt).

CONTENTS.

The New University for London
Comparative Geology
The Baltic Ship-Canal
Our Book Shelf:-

Glazebrook: "Laws and Properties of Matter.”-
J. W. R.

Thunderstorms and Auroral Phenomena.-J. Ewen
Davidson.

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Keltie: "The Partition of Africa

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Letters to the Editor:

"A Son of the Marshes": "Forest Tithes, and other Studies from Nature"

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Locusts at Great Elevations. -Sir J. D. Hooker,
F.R.S.

house

The Sandgate Landslip.-Rev. Dr. Irving, F.R.S. 581
"Roche's Limit."-Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S.
The Afterglows and Bishop's Ring.-T. W. Back-

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Physiological Society, March 17.-Prof. du Bois Reymond. President, in the chair.-In the discussion which ensued on the communication made at the last meeting of the society, Prof. Zun'z gave the data as to the daily consumption of proteid and fat by the fasting man Cetti, as also the heat produced by their oxidation, from which it appeared that the heat production during his fast was constant.-Prof. Behring gave an account of his further experiments with preventive serum. portion was mixed with a slight excess of tetanus virus; mice died after inoculation with the mixture. When heated to 65° C. the virus became inert, but not so the serum, thus proving that the respective substances had not exerted any chemical action each on the other. A further new and important fact observed was that tetanus virus-that is, the products of metabolism of tetanus bacilli-made inert by heating to 65' acts preventively towards tetanus infection. Hence the facts known to hold good as to the action of tuberculin in tuberculosis now appear to hold good with regard to tetanus, and should be further investigated in the case of other acute diseases, such as diphtheria, typhus, and cholera.-Dr. Lewy Dorn gave a full description of his experiments on the question of whether the formation of sweat is the result of a filtrational process. By calculating the capacity of the sweat-glands, and the volume of the sweat-drops secreted, he came to the conclusion that a true new formation of sweat could only be assumed with certainty after a fourfold

Fossil Floras and Climate.-J. Starkie Gardner
Wild Spain. (Illustrated.).
Notes

Our Astronomical Column:

The Photographic Chart of the Heavens
Catalogue of Southern Star Magnitudes
A New Table of Standard Wave-lengths
Meteor Showers

Wolsingham Observatory, Circular No. 35
Geographical Notes

Recent Innovations in Vector Theory. By Prof.
C. G. Knott

Experimental Medicine.
Steam-Engine Trials

Scientific Serials

Societies and Academies

Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received

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