Nickel and cobalt are less like manganese than iron is; they are decidedly metallic in their chemical characters. The three elements of Section 1 of Group VIII. form a link connecting the negative metals chromium and manganese, which are the highest members of Series 4, with the positive metal copper which forms the first member of Series 5. Section 2. Atomic weights Sp. grs. (approx.) Atom. weights spec. gravs. Sp. heats Melting points Occurrence, and preparation. Appearance, and general physical properties. General chemical properties. Section 3. Atomic weights These metals occur in small quantities in many platinum ores. They are Greyish-white; very Oxidises at a red-heat, Unacted on by any acid IRIDIUM. Sp. grs. (approx.) Atom. weights spec. gravs. Sp. heats Melting points Occurrence, and preparation. Appearance, and general physical properties. General chemical properties. 21.2 9.1 ⚫0324 abt. 2000° These metals occur in small quantities associated (?alloyed) with each White; lustrous; When finely divided Combines directly with White with tinge of Oxidises readily to Silver-white; very lus- Dissolved by aqua * Exact value of atomic weight of osmium is doubtful; numbers vary from 193 to 199. 491 492 493 494 495 496 General formulae and chemical characters of compounds of metals of Sections 2 and 3. The platinum metals—i.e. rhodium, ruthenium, palladium, iridium, osmium, and platinum-are characterised by their insolubility in most acids: the three metals placed in Section 3 are also characterised by their high specific gravities. Gold resembles the platinum metals both in being insoluble in most acids and in being very heavy. Gold and the platinum metals are often named the noble metals. The double chlorides 2KCl. MCI, are characteristic of the platinum metals. The chlorides of these metals combine with ammonia and form several series of more or less complex ammonia-compounds. The higher oxides of these metals are acidic in their reactions with alkalis. Osmium is characterised by the easily gasified oxide OsO,; this is the only compound of the platinum metals the vapour density of which has been determined. The compounds of the platinum metals have not been fully investigated. Oxides. All the metals form protoxides MO, and dioxides MO,. The protoxides are usually unstable. The dioxides usually dissolve in acids, but few definite salts have been isolated. The hydrated dioxides, which are not obtained by direct interactions between the oxides and water, generally dissolve in alkali solutions; in some cases salts of the form K,MO, or basic salts K,O.yMO,, have been separated. Trioxides, MO are known where M = Rh, Ir, or Os: these oxides dissolve in alkali solutions. Tetroxides of ruthenium and osmium are known, MO, they are solids with low melting points and boiling about 100°; they form salts by interacting with alkalis. Chlorides. All the metals form dichlorides MCI,, and tetrachlorides MC. Trichlorides MCl,, are known where M = Ru, Rh, or Ir. The di- and tetra-chlorides combine with alkali chlorides forming compounds of which 2KC1. MCl, and 2KCl. MCI, are representatives; these double compounds are usually known as chloro-platinites (rhodites, ruthenites, &c.), and chloro-platinates (rhodates, &c.), respectively. Salts. Very few salts of the platinum metals have been isolated. They all seem to be unstable and ill-defined compounds. Most of the salts are either basic, e.g. Rh ̧ ̧.зN ̧ ̧.4H ̧O; or double salts, e.g. Pt2NO,. 2AgNO,. 2 2 2 The platinum metals are evidently possessed of most of the physical properties which we are accustomed to associate with the metallic elements; but chemically considered they are both metallic and non-metallic. They differ considerably from all the other elements. The properties of these elements are in keeping with the position assigned them by the periodic law: each section follows a series of elements the lower members of which are metallic, and the higher members are physically metallic but chemically both negative and positive. We have now learned something of the classification of 497 elements and compounds based on the periodic law. The elements fall into series and groups: each series, with the exception of the first, is composed of seven elements; Series 1 contains a single element, hydrogen; each group is divided into two families, those elements which occur in even series, and those which occur in odd series; a complete family consists of six elements. The nine elements, iron, nickel, cobalt, rhodium, ruthenium, palladium, iridium, osmium, and platinum, are placed to some extent apart from the others; the first section of this group (iron to cobalt) belongs both to Series 4 and Series 5, the second section (rhodium to palladium) belongs to Series 6 and 7, the third section (iridium to platinum) belongs to Series 10 and 11. The properties of the elements in any series vary from that with the smallest atomic weight to that with the largest, so that the first and last members of the series are the most unlike one another. When the gradation of properties has been completed through a series, the properties, as it were, swing back to the starting point, and exhibit a similar gradation in the next series. The properties of the first members of Groups II. to VII., and of the first and second members of Group I., are to a certain extent typical of the properties of all the other members of these groups. The properties of an element and its compounds are connected with the general properties of the group to which the element belongs and also with the gradation of properties in that group; they are likewise connected with the general properties of the series and with the gradation of properties in the series to which the element belongs. Inasmuch as the properties of each group and series are connected with the properties, and the gradation of properties, of the other groups and series, it follows that the relations of any element to other similar elements are to be elucidated only by studying the M. E. C. 23 498 position of the specified element in the complete scheme of classification. The periodic law seeks to connect the changes in the properties of the elements, and in the compositions and properties of compounds, with the changes in the atomic weights of the elements; and it endeavours to make this connexion definite and to present it in accurate terms. If the atomic weight of an element is known, the place of the element in the classificatory scheme is determined, and therefore the properties of the element and its compounds can be stated in a general way. If the properties of an element and its compounds are determined, the position of this element in the orderly sequence of elements can be found, and thereby an approximately correct value can be deduced for the atomic weight of the element. We have had examples of the application of the periodic law both to the classification of elements and to the determination of the best values of the atomic weights of elements. The valencies of the atoms of the elements are undoubtedly important factors determining the compositions of compounds. These valencies probably vary periodically with variations in the atomic weights of the elements; but the valencies of so few elements have been definitely determined that we are not at present able to state the connexions between changes of atomic valencies and of atomic weights. The maximum valencies of all the elements in Series 2, except lithium, have been determined by considering the compositions of gaseous molecules of compounds of these elements with monovalent atoms. The valencies are as follows;— Groups. Ι. Be B C N 0 F Series 2. The atom of lithium is probably monovalent; assuming this atom to be monovalent, we see that the maximum valency of the atoms of the elements of Series 2 increases from the first to the middle member, and then decreases to the last member. We cannot assert that maximum atomic valency varies in all the series exactly as it does in Series 2; nevertheless, the assumption that it does thus vary would certainly in some cases lead to results which are confirmed by observation. Thus, the assumption requires the atoms of the elements in Group IV. to be tetravalent; the maximum valencies of the atoms of all the members of this group, except cerium, have been determined and the atoms have been found to be tetravalent. On the other hand, the assumption requires the atoms of the elements in Group VI. to be divalent; but the existence of the gaseous molecules MoCl., TeCl,, WC, UCl, proves that the maximum valency of some at least of these atoms is greater than two. The conception of atomic valency-the conception, that is, that every atom in a molecule directly interacts with a limited number of other atoms-has been deduced from the study of gaseous molecules, and is strictly applicable to gaseous molecules only. But the greater number of the compounds of inorganic chemistry are non-gasifiable bodies; the conception of atomic valency cannot therefore, at present, be made use of, otherwise than in a broad and general way, in questions regarding the conditions which determine the compositions of compound molecules. The periodic law asserts that the compositions of com- 499 pounds vary periodically with variations in the atomic weights of the elements. If we are content to use the expression composition of a non-gasifiable compound as meaning the ratio of the numbers of atoms forming the chemically reacting weight of the compound, then we can express the compositions of classes of similar compounds by general formulae, and we can trace connexions between these formulae and the atomic weights of the elements. OS SO 4 Thus, let X= F, Cl, Br, I, OH, NO,, CO, 2, 2' 2' CO, &c., then the compositions of a great many important 2 compounds of the elements of the different groups may be thus expressed ; |