home market, (b) the building up of an export trade-Down to 1720 competition at home, thereafter competition trans- ferred to foreign markets-Wool cards first finished product -Battery goods produced at Keswick-Importation of foreign goods-Diminished at beginning of 18th century- Great improvements in the trades of Birmingham and London -Development of foreign trade Goods sent to Russia, Africa, America, and France-Reputation of English goods abroad- Foreign competition and tariff barriers-Rival manufactures started abroad-Depression at the end of the century-High cost of copper-Disturbance of markets due to war-Com- mercial organisation and trade fluctuations-Transport facilities -Bad roads-Employment of waterways-Canals-Scope for moneyed merchant-Pin industry-Merchants concerned with export trade-Brass and copper companies warehouses-Part played by manufacturers-Boulton-Trade fluctuations-De- pendence of demand on fashion and custom-Buckles, brass Importance of subject-Wages-Real wage and nominal wage— Rates at Tintern Wire Works-Cost of living-Truck system at Keswick-Rates of pay for skilled workers-Overtime and "bonuses "-Miners chiefly paid on piece basis-System of tributing Miscellaneous employees-Great differences in rates paid-Rise in prices in first half of 17th century-1640-1740, general increase in real wages-Rates paid at Dockwra's Works Journeyman's wages-Miners in Staffordshire-Pin-makers in Gloucester-Rate of wages paid in other trades in 1770- Wide variations and little connection with cost of living- Increase in prices in second half of the century-Decrease in real wages-Wages in Cornwall in the 'nineties-Wages paid at Boulton's Works-Negotiations between the Cheadle and Bristol Companies as to the rates paid to wire workers- General rates in Birmingham-Contrasted with Sheffield- -Conclusion-Employment-Change from domestic system to factory system-Powers of obtaining labour given to the Elizabethan companies-Foreign skill employed at the brass and copper works-Men, women and children employed at Dockwra's Works and at Champion's Works-Apprenticeship at Cheadle and Soho-Mutual Assurance Societies at Soho and Keynsham Brass Works-Employment in the mines- Ecton Hill-Cornwall-Anglesey-Difficulties of combinations of wage-earners-Strike at Keswick-Strike at Mines Royal Works in 1798-Instances of combination among the miners of Cornwall-Distress caused by action of Cornish Metal V. EXPENSE OF ONE MONTH AT CHASEWATER, 1773 VI. BRASS HOUSE CALCULATION IN 1781 (AT THE FOREST VII. PROPOSAL FOR AN AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE SUBSCRIBERS TO THE BIRMINGHAM SMELTING COMPANY AND MESSRS. FENTON AND THE CHASEWATER COPPER COMPANY, 1786 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. ARMS AND BLAZONING OF THE SOCIETY OF THE MINERAL AND BATTERY WORKS, 1568 Frontispiece From John Pettus, Fodina Regales, 1670. 2. A COPPERSMITH FACE PAGE From Jost Amman, MANOMAIA, Omnium illiberalium mechani- ... ... 3. FURNACES FOR SMELTING COPPER From Georgius Agricola, De Re Metallica, 1556. 26 55 5. THE HARFORD AND BRISTOL BRASS Co., WATER POWER MILL, KEYNSHAM, NEAR BRISTOL, 1925 . By kind permission of the Bristol Times and Mirror. 97 149 199 From Col. Grant-Francis, The Smelting of Copper, 1881. 7. AN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY BRASSFOUNDRY. From M. Galon, L'Art de convertir Le Cuivre Rouge en Laiton From M. Duhamel du Monceau, Description de la Manufacture 264 312 UNTIL the reign of Elizabeth no brass had been made in England and the mining of copper had been almost wholly neglected. The establishment of these industries was largely due to the pioneer work of a number of German capitalists and workmen three and a half centuries ago. Capitalists already engaged in the long-established metalmining concerns of the Tyrol then turned their attention to this country as a promising field of investment. They arranged with the authorities for the necessary powers, and sent over managers, skilled workmen and equipment. The history of the venture is, therefore, one of the most interesting examples of the enlargement and diversification of English industrial life by the migration hither of foreign enterprise and technical knowledge. But, unlike some other migrants, these men were not refugees. They were not like the Flemings who, driven from their native land by the religious persecutions of Alva, gave a fresh impulse to the woollen industry; nor like the Huguenots, who were sent over by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in a later century to establish the silk manufacture. They came with a definite business object in view; for the capitalists who financed and led this new enterprise believed that England was rich in mineral wealth and their motive was simply that of profit-making. On the English side Cecil, Elizabeth's Secretary of State, was anxious to establish the brass and copper industries in this country for purposes of national defence, and the German newcomers were assured of every encouragement from the State. The new undertaking was no easy one, involving as it did many difficult industrial operations, some of them totally B λ |