not alone the creature itself in some striking attitude, characteristic of its habits, but, as well, the very scene in which it was first observed. In the Quadrupeds of America, a group of Elks standing and lying beneath the shadows of the bordering trees, is seen looking out upon the undulations of those vast prairies of the Upper Missouri, where Audubon saw them, on his tour to that region. The Buffalo, with Bull, Cow and Calves, in the foreground, is shown in the same scenes, with the long, dark lines of the immense herd fading under the plane where the green sea of grass and the arch of the blue sky are blended. So the fatal eye of the Canada Lynx, with the yellow heat of ferocity in it, compels a sort of shiver from us as we see it in the act of springing upon its unconscious prey, amidst the broken rocks, the decaying logs and tangled firs of a Northern forest. Even the little WoodMouse is shown amidst the huge drift logs and the mighty desolation through which the Lower Mississippi holds its sombre way, and amidst which this creature finds its most congenial home. It is in such hearty and faithful dedication of the best and highest attributes of Genius to the work of "Illustrating" Natural History--as we have imperfectly sketched above-that the generic difference between what was called Illustration before, and the School Mr. Audubon has founded, is to be perceived. Others have trifled with it, made mere baby-toyings of what they undertook. Mr. Audubon has elevated it into the rank of highest Art! The celebrity of Landseer in depicting the passions and characteristics of Domestic Animals—the high value even of engravings from his Paintings, shows what an impulsion the rare Plates of the Birds of America" has given to the taste for this sort of illustration lately. Men are beginning to take curious and sympathetic interest in expositions of the life, passions and habits of the lower forms of animal existence, and to feel how graphically they illustrate their own. We will not say that Audubon's Illustrations of the Quadrupeds of America have equaled the paintings of Landseer, in his own department. That would be unjust, as Landseer has worked one field and Audubon another. But we do say that, so far as they have progressed, the Illustrations of the 66 Quadrupeds of America" much surpass any efforts of the same kind which have yet been given to the

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world, as the Paintings of Landseer, in Domestic and Semi-Domesticated Animals surpass those of the Dutch, or any other School! The same extraordinary Art which created the Plates of the Birds, makes itself recognized in the Quadrupeds. In a severely critical spirit we might say that there appears, perhaps, something more of stiffness than is apparent in the figures of the Plates to the Birds. This is, comparatively, a petty fault. We cannot look for all the buoyant spirit and elastic freshness of youth in the work of even such a man, whose years have passed 65, nor can we expect all the wonderful traits of his Genius to be infused into the execution of his Collaborateurs. It is sufficient to say that we feel the infusion of his presence throughout, and that all parties concerned have shown themselves worthy to share with him the glory of such a Work.

But here we must confess that we have been, in this disquisition upon Illustrative Art, decoyed ahead of the Historical march of our subject; we must, therefore, return. Although we have shown that there were many reasons why the Illustrations given in Dr. Godman's Work should not have been remarkable in any other sense than for their inaccuracy, the same excuses are not applicable in extenuation of the wretched and monstrous Illustrations which accompany the most important work next to that of Godman on the Natural History of America. We refer to the "Natural History of New York," published "by Authority" of the State in 1842. We have nothing to do with the other departments of this Work at present, but with that of Mammalogy, for which James E. Dekay has assumed the responsibility. This gentleman, who is a respectable and laborious Compiler, has not been content with furnishing "to order" a commendably accurate replication of all the slavish errors of Harlan and the natural ones of Godman, but has as well aspired to illuminate the donkeyish drudgery of his labors by a repetition of all the most spicy faults of his European prototypes. In addition, he has filled his Illustrative department with the boldest burlesques of Animal Forms that we have perceived in the last half century-although Landseer in Animals and Audubon in Birds had both preceded

him! We will just dismiss this Work with the remark that we hope the other Volumes are better. As for this it is a

singularly triumphant illustration of the success with which a dogged resolution in sticking by "Precedent" may be crowned-so far as robbing the most interesting theme of the slightest particle of legitimate interest is concerned. We cannot help congratulating the Commonwealth of New York upon the eminently wise and sagacious disposition of its funds, which has, in this instance at least, secured to its Archives a sufficiently ponderous memorial of the specific gravity of Natural Science within its limits! Since Godman, up to the time of the "Quadrupeds of America," nothing has been done with any pretension to System. The facts with regard to different species have been gradually accumulating amongst us in various ways, particularly through the numerous Journals of Science which have grown up in our country. We now come to the period of the Work under consideration. We have shown, in the first place, the circumstances so honorable to all parties through which it has grown into being then the difficulties which have enveloped the progress of Mammalogy amongst us; and as to how these difficulties have been overcome it will be our task to show hereafter. Godman's Work did something certainly towards extricating our native Fauna from the confusion into which it had fallen in this Department. But still there was a vast deal left to be done. Our Hares, Squirrels, Mice, Moles, &c., had become nearly inextricably confounded in the nomenclature of their Species. Almost innumerable errors had crept into the Classification of other Species through either inattention to system, errors in Biography, which grew out of ignorance or toadyism inaccurate anatomical definitionand last, though not least, tame, ludicrous, and insufficient Illustration. This Work has attempted to remedy all these difficulties. In it the four prominent schools of Zoology have been united. The system of Linnæus has been recognized the Biographical School has been carried to a degree of accuracy which has never characterized it-with a great

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er amount of truthful anecdotal outline than we have observed as giving piquancy to details of the kind before. Comparative Anatomy has been carried within the extremes to the just ultimation of its importance, and Illustration has certainly gone farther than it has ever been carried in Quadrupeds, or could have been at this period, but that the Genius which originated the "Plates of the Birds of America" had been brought to bear upon its superintendence. We may say in general terms of the Work, that in the letter-press, for which Dr. Bachman is mainly responsible, we find a greater precision of style than characterizes the Biographies of Birds," though it has not the same spirit and vivacity. We have the same feature of personal reminiscence in connection with those living details of habit which gave such vividness to the Biographies." And farther, that inasmuch as this volume illustrates the future conduct of the Work in Letter-Press, we are convinced that they will go on to classify more accurately through all obscurations the species of our Quadrupeds, to more fully set forth their habits in live descriptions, and “ Illustrate them beyond any comparison, more exquisitely than has ever been done or attempted before. We had intended to have quoted largely from this Volume this month, but we find that our Historical sketch of the difficulties through which the Work has been necessitated to struggle to the position of its present excellence, at the head of Illustrative Mammalogy in the world, bas filled all the space we can give to it for the present. Next month we promise to furnish the first No. of a Series, in which we propose not only to give all the interesting Biographical traits of Animals we find there described, but also to add the annotations and additions which our own large experience of such themes can furnish.

We thus take leave of the "Quadrupeds of America" for the present month, with the absolute consciousness that we can repay the readers of this dry sketch by an exposition of those curious novelties which its pages disclose.

MUCH is written and said in this country about Monopolies, and an idea has been industriously spread abroad, that to protect the labor of the United States so as to secure it against the vicious systems of Europe, which so much depress man in the scale of social life, is granting Monopolies to those concerned in manufactures and mechanic arts.

Now, although to those acquainted with the subject, this is very well known to have not the slightest foundation in truth, but to be a mere invention to deceive the ignorant, we think it would be well to examine into the origin of Monopolies, and to show what really are obnoxious or liable to the odium which attaches to that much misused

term.

In making this inquiry it will be our purpose, in the few remarks we make, to show that Monopolies are particular privileges, granted to certain subjects or citizens, which are refused to others, living under the same government, and that therefore, if we except the charters granted for banking purposes, there are literally no Monopolies of any kind in the United States.

Every trade and profession of every nature and kind, every pursuit in business, is alike open to every individual in this country. If any man or set of men shall elect to engage in mining or manufacturing, the way is open for them to do so, upon precisely the same terms and in the same manner as it is for any other man or set of men all parties concerned are in an equal manner liable for the payment of debts.

It is true that certain persons may, in some of the States of the Union, unite for the accomplishment of certain objects, and not be liable, each of them, beyond the amount specifically applied by him to the accomplishment of that object; but in this there is no Monopoly, because, with the exception named, the same privilege is given to all. How far it is right and proper to permit the privileges which are nothing more nor less than special partnerships, is another question wholly different from that of granting Monopolies. Nor is it our purpose at this time to meet that question. Opinions of wise and good men differ much

as to the expediency of granting charters of any kind; the feeling at this time is undoubtedly generally opposed to them; still they are lawful, and in this State such charters can be obtained for purposes specified through means prescribed by law. But as we have said, in this there is no Monopoly.

What Monopolies really are, and when and how they were created, may be shown in few words.

King Henry VII. of England, in the year 1506, granted a license to Augustini Chigi, a merchant of Sienna in Tuscany, to import from Flanders, or elsewhere, into England, thirteen hundred quintals of alum, and allowed none else to import any until he should sell off all of his said quantity, provided, however, that neither he nor his factors should sell the said alum at a higher price than one pound six shillings and eightpence per quintal or hundredweight.

In 1530, an act of parliament was passed, "that all hemp growing within five miles of Bridport, shall be sold nowhere but in that town; that no persons other than such who shall dwell and inhabit the said town of Bridport, shall make out of the said town any cables, hawsers, &c., made of hemp, in any other place or places within the said distance of five miles from the said town."

In 1534, it was enacted by Parliament, "that no person within the town of Worcester, England, shall make any cloth but the proper inhabitants of the said city and town, excepting persons who make cloth for their own and families' wear."

In 1544 Parliament enacted, "That no person whatever, within or nigh to the County of York, shall make any coverlets for sale, but inhabitants alone dwelling within the city and its suburts, upon forfeiture of the same."

shall be imprisoned for three months and forfeit ten pounds, excepting magistrates of corporations and persons of higher rank. And if any person, knowing his servant to offend against this law, do not put him forth of his service within fourteen days, or shall hire him again, shall forfeit one hundred pounds."

In 1565, Queen Elizabeth granted a Monopoly to Armigell Wade, Esq. and William Herle, for the sole making of brimstone, for thirty years, and also for the sole making or extracting from certain herbs, roots, and seeds, an oil proper to be used for wool, and for the making and dressing woolen cloth, &c."

Monopolies of various kinds were granted by King Charles I. of England such as special privileges for the making of soap, for starch, playing-cards, saltpetre, gunpowder, glass-making, wines from raisins, for gold and silver thread, for malt and brewing, &c., &c. Also a Monopoly for the sole selling of coals at New castle.

Monopolies of the same kind were granted in France, such as the making of woolen cloths at Sedan and other places. These were real Monopolies, the benefits of which inured to particular individuals; but they and all other privileges of a similar character are wholly foreign to, and directly at variance with, our free institutions, and no portion of our citizens are more opposed to them than those concerned in manufactures and the mechanic

arts.

These monopolies, and many charters that were granted, containing peculiar privileges of trade and commerce with foreign nations, given by various sovereigns of Europe, were considered as they really were, restrictions upon trade, and it was in contradistinction to these that the term "Free Trade" first originated. It is only since Great Britain, perceiving that her monopoly in manufactures is to be broken up by the rival nations, and that her system of securing all the markets of the world for them, is in great danger, that the idea of levying duties or imposts in other countries, had anything to do with the freedom of trade.

What trade in the United States is not as free to one of its citizens as to any other? Surely there is none in which all may not embark upon equal terms, so far as legislation is concerned. The question then, of the rate of duties to be paid on the introduction of foreign goods into

this or to any other country, has nothing to do with anything like a monopoly.

The question involves no principle of interference with individual rights, or that is at war with the most perfect freedom and success of international commerce. Even Secretary Walker admits the right and expediency of laying duties for revenue-and that being admitted, all idea of Free Trade is at an end.

We do not on this occasion desire, or intend to go into the discussion of the right and policy of laying duties for the protection of our labor-the writer of this article considers that question fully settled, from the superabundant testimony already so often and publicly adduced. He wishes simply to disabuse the public mind from all idea, that the advocates of protection are, in any manner or form, the advocates of monopoly of any nature or kind whatever; and he appeals to the recent elections, as abundant evidence that the majority of the people of this country have decided the question. The question of protection to the labor of the country is one of the most prominent doctrines of the Whig party-and what is the verdict that is found recorded in the successes which have everywhere crowned their cause in the elections which have been held since the passage of the Tariff of 1846.

Until the passage of that law, many States which have since shown their preference for Whig principles, gave the suffrage of their citizens in favor of President Polk; that they should have changed their political complexion, shows that they are in favor of American industry, and will not consent to the doctrine that Congress have no power over the commerce of the country, further than to make it merely subservient to the public revenue.

We look, therefore, for brighter days in the future, when the times created by the wise enactment of the Tariff of 1842 will return, and give a new impulse to the whole industry of the country.

We desire no monopolies, no privi leges, but those for which our institutions were specially framed, to be enjoyed alike by every citizen, be his condition in life what it may.

Our principles are, that our country should avail itself of all its natural endowments-should cultivate its rich and genial soil, and fill the garners of our agriculturists with stores of grain, and our

mills with the fleeces of their flocks; that our miners should extract the rich mineral treasures from the teeming bosom of the earth, that our planters should reap rich rewards in the abundance of their crops of cotton, rice and tobacco, and the surplus of our productions should be carried to the various marts of the world by our gallant ships; that the arts of

peace should flourish to the utmost limits of our widely extended borders-and to reach this happy consummation, nothing more is necessary than to protect our well-conditioned laborers from the vicious systems by which men are kept down and depressed under the monarchical institutions and privileged orders of foreign despotisms.

WITHOUT going into the intricacies of political economy, it is proposed in this article to consider in a common sense manner, what it is that creates values, and how they are accumulated.

If we inquire into the foundation of all values, we shall be led to the inevitable conclusion, that there are a multiplicity of ingredients in their creation: Labor, skill, invention, soil, climate, the presence of natural endowments, such as forests, fisheries, minerals, &c., and also water privileges, roads, canals, and other means of using them and conveying them to market.

In considering, therefore, the power possessed by a nation or people to create and accumulate values, we must take into calculation how far they can command any or all of these ingredients; for exactly in the proportion in which they are more or less present, will be the power with which values can be created.

We think this position so impregnable that we shall not waste time in undertaking to fortify a self-evident truth. There is no fair way of estimating what ought to be the policy of any nation without an examination into the presence or absence of these original sources of national wealth.

If it can be shown that they exist in an uncommon degree in any one country, we shall contend that it is the bounden duty of the people of that country, separate and apart from all other considerations of intercourse with any or all other countries, to frame its laws in such manner as shall best tend to the use of any or all of them, so as to produce from them the greatest amount in value and of comfort and happiness to the people.

We have advanced these truisms with a view to examine in what degree the United States possesses these all-import

ant ingredients for the well-being of its population, at this particular time; and having shown what we believe to be our position in regard to them, we shall next consider what is the best policy for the government to pursue (in the language of the Constitution) most to promote" the general welfare." In soil and climate, in the possession of forests, fisheries, minerals, &c., indeed in all natural endowments, is there any country upon the habitable globe that can boast of such a profusion. The Rev. Timothy Dwight, in his valedictory address delivered to his class in 1776, in speaking of the country, thus describes it: "Whatever may conduce to health, plenty, and happiness, is almost the spontaneous products of its fields. Our corn is of every kind of the best quality, and of a quantity that cannot be measured. Our cattle and fruits of every kind are without number. Our plants and flowers, for health and pleasure, appear to have been scattered by the same benevolent hand which called forth the luxuriance of Eden. All that the wish of an epicure, the pride of beauty, or the curious mind of a naturalist can ask to variegate the table of luxury, to increase the shrine of splendor, or delight the endless thirst of knowledge, is showered in profusion on this, the favored land of Heaven.

"Nor are these bounties bestowed only on the earth. The ocean, the lakes, and the rivers pour forth an unlimited abundance of wealth and pleasure. Commonly the munificence of the Deity is equally distributed. Where the soil is barren, the sea is fruitful and supplies the defect. Where the land is fertile, the sea is empty and unfurnished. Here, the ocean and the continent were evidently formed for each other by the same open hand, and stored with blessings by the same