$30. When the verb is in a compound tense, the auxiliary verb stands last; as Nachdem sie ihn begrüßt hatte, kam sie schnell auf mich zu. After she had welcomed him, she approached me quickly. § 31. When there are two verbs, one of which is a verb of mood (see § 87 of the Grammar), the verb of mood stands last; as Er sagte, daß er nicht kommen fönne. He said that he could not come. § 32. When there are two verbs, the one being an infinitive, and the other an inflected verb, the inflected verb stands last; as— Der Sohn starb gerade zu der Stunde, in welcher sein Vater ihn wie derzusehen hoffte. The son died the very hour his father hoped to see him again. § 33. When there are two infinitives and an auxiliary verb, the auxiliary verb has the first place, whilst the governing infinitive stands last; as Er überlegte, wie er es werde He considered how he might be able to avoid it. He said that he did not like to do it. § 34. Sometimes the conjunction, which generally connects the subordinate clause with the principal clause, is omitted and understood. In this case the construction is like that of a principal clause; as— Er fürchtete, ich könne mich er= kälten. (Er fürchtete, daß ich mich erkälten könne.) He was afraid I might catch cold. § 35. Sometimes the auxiliary verb is omitted and understood; as Daß er mir genommen (wurde), ist mein größtes Leid. That he was taken from me is my greatest sorrow. § 36. In subordinate clauses the prefixes of separable compound verbs are not separated from the verb (see § 107 of the Grammar): Er war so beschäftigt, daß er in vierzehn Tagen nicht ausging. He was so busy that he did not go out for a fortnight. § 37. The co-ordinative conjunctions-aber, allein, denn, nămlich, oder, sondern, sowohl als, and und-serve to connect two or more independent statements with each other, which have either one common subject or predicate, or have each a subject and predicate of their own (co-ordinate clauses). Co-ordinative conjunctions do not affect the regular order of construction explained in §§ 14-25, and generally stand at the beginning of the co-ordinate clauses which they introduce; but aber and nämlich are often placed after the verb, and sometimes even stand in the middle of the clause; as Die Frau war dem Manne früh gestorben; dieser ließ dem hinterlassenen A subordinate clause, i. e. a clause dependent on another clause, without which it would not be understood, is joined to a principal clause by means of a relative pronoun, or a conjunction, which latter may be either a relative, a subordinative, or an adverbial conjunction. (See § 124 of the Grammar.) The effect produced upon the construction by relative pronouns, relative conjunctions, and subordinative conjunctions has been explained in §§ 29-36. Adverbial conjunctions, like all other adverbial expressions commencing a clause, require the verb to stand before the subject, as has been pointed out in § 124 of the Grammar. III. ESSENTIALS OF WORD-BUILDING, I. OF NOUNS. § 38. Nouns are either simple or compound. The simple nouns are either primitive or derivative. A. SIMPLE NOUNS. 1. PRIMITIVE NOUNS. § 39. Primitive nouns are such as are underived and are used as stems for the derivation of other words. Such nouns are— der Stein, stone; das Haus, house; die Frau, woman; der Sohn, son; der Tisch, table. Also all nouns with the terminations— e, el, en, er, the derivation of which is no longer recognizable; as— der Knabe, boy; die Taube, dove; der Vogel, bird; der Garten, garden; der Sommer, summer; der Vater, father; der Finger, finger; der Löffel, spoon; der Spiegel, mirror; der Hobel, plane; der Hammer, hammer; die Leier, lyre. (Notice the terminations el and er in names of tools and instruments.) 2. DERIVATIVE NOUNS. § 40. Derivative nouns are either primary derivatives or secondary derivatives. Primary derivative nouns are such as are derived from the stems of primitive verbs, to which may be added the terminations t, st, d, and e. Secondary derivative nouns are such as are derived from other words by means of significant prefixes and suffixes. (a) Primary Derivative Nouns. § 41. Primary derivative nouns are formed from the stems of primitive verbs in three ways: 1. The stem is altogether unchanged; as are added to a verbal stem. This verbal stem is sometimes unaltered, sometimes its vowel is changed, and sometimes also one or more of its consonants. The above terminations form essential parts of the nouns thus formed. The stems in themselves have no independent signification as nouns, and the terminations have lost their original meaning in the course of time. Nouns of this class are die Schrift, writing, die Gruft, grave, die Wacht, watch, die Wucht, weight, # die Sucht, passion, desire, die Kunst, art, die Schwulst, swelling, die Binde, bandage, from schreiben, to write. from wachen, to watch. from wiegen, v. intr. to weigh. from suchen, to seek for, to be in search of. from schwellen, to swell. from bind-en, to bind. (b) Secondary Derivative Nouns. § 42. Secondary derivative nouns are derived from verbs, nouns, and adjectives by means of significant prefixes and suffixes. In nouns of this class the vowels a, o, u, and the diphthong au, are frequently changed into ä, ö, ü, and äu. PREFIXES. § 43. The prefixes which are used for the formation of derivative nouns are Erz, Ge, Miß, un, and 11 r. It must be here noticed that the unaccented verbal prefixes be, ent, emp, er, hinter, ver, voll, wider, zer and the accented verbal prefixes ab, an, auf, aus, bei, dar, ein, fort, her, heim, hin, los, mit, nach, nieder, vor, weg, wieder, zu, durch, um, über, and unter, etc. (see § 109 of the Grammar), serve in the first instance to form compound verbs, and that nouns with these prefixes are again derived from those verbs. [The prefixes Hinter, Voll, and Wider, however, are frequently found in connection with primitive and primary derivative nouns, forming with them compound nouns, like das Hin'terhaar, back-hair; das Hin'terhaus, back-house; der Hin'ter fopf, back of the head; der Vollmond, full moon; die Voll’macht (from Macht, power, and voll, full), authority, power of attorney; das Voll'blut (from voll, full, and Blut, blood), thoroughbred horse; der Wie'derhall, re-echo, echo; der Widersacher, antagonist; der Wi'derstand, resistance. When compounded with nouns these originally unaccented verbal prefixes become accented.] $ 44. 1. Er corresponds to the English arch, and denotes the first, the best, the most perfect of its kind. It is prefixed to nouns only; as der Erzherzog, archduke; der Erg'engel, archangel; der Erz'feind, arch-foe; der Crz'bischof, archbishop. 2. Ge expresses in general association and assimilation. It forms(a) From verbal stems or from nouns, names of persons; as-der Gespiele, playmate; der Gehülfe, assistant; die Geschwister, brothers and sisters. (6) From nouns, collectives; as—das Gewässer, waters; das Gebüsch, thicket; das Gewölk, clouds. (c) From verbs, names of actions in which the action is represented as being repeated and continued; as-das Geschrei, repeated crying; das Gebell, continued barking; das Gerede, continued talking. Also nouns which are the names of the action expressed by the verb; as der Gesang, singing, song; das Gebet, prayer. Or which result from the action expressed by the verb; as-das Gebäude, building (from bauen, to build); das Gedicht, poem (from dichten, to write poetry). And (d) It forms from verbs names for the instrument of the action expressed by the verb; as-daß Geschoß, gun (from schießen, to shoot); der Geruch, the sense of smell (from riechen, to smell). 3. Mis corresponds to the English mis and dis. It denotes wrong and ill, and often may be translated by bad; as—die Miß ́ernte, bad harvest; die Miß'gunst, ill will, envy; der Miß'muth, ill humour; der Miß'klang, dissonance; der Miß'leiter, misleader. 4. Un has a negative power, and corresponds to the English un, in, mis; as―der Unʼdank, ingratitude; das Un'kraut, weed (from |