very of the hieroglyphic alphabet, while the later have been formed by it. The former began with the illustrious Joseph Scaliger, who, in the end of the sixteenth century, published his great work upon general chronology. In respect to Egypt, he had not the means of going much beyond a mere re-editing of the chronological lists. Notwithstanding the labours of Petavius, Goar, and Marsham, Scaliger cannot be said to have had any worthy successor in this field, until the end of the seventeenth century, when Zoega published his learned work on the Obelisks, which may be regarded as an anticipation of a more recent style of scholarship. In 1711, Jacob Perizonius published his Origines Egyptiaca, one of the most profound and ingenious productions of that century in the department of historical research, and which Bunsen describes as the "last critical analysis of Egyptian chronology, before the late discoveries in hieroglyphics. From that period, the inquiry passed from the province of the philologer into that of the general historian." In this light it was ably pursued in the end of last century by Heyne and Heeren, whose example and principles laid the foundation of a new and superior school of historical criticism, constituting the transition period to that which was ushered in by the discovery of the hieroglyphic system.

This brilliant triumph of ingenious scholarship was first announced by Champollion in 1822. It had been suggested to him, and, even at an earlier date, to Dr. Young of England, by a study of the Rosetta stone. This celebrated monument had been found by the French soldiers when in Egypt, and afterwards captured by the English and deposited in the British Museum. It consists of a slab of basalt, having its length divided into three portions, each containing an inscription in a different character. One of these was in Greek, from which it appeared that the other two were of the same meaning, in the hieroglyphic and demotic, or common writing of the country. For, being a decree connected with the coronation of Ptolemy Epiphanes, it closed with the following order, “And that it may be known why in Egypt, he is glorified and honoured, as is just, the God Epiphanes, most gracious sovereign, the present decree shall be engraved on a stela of hard stone, in sacred characters (that is, hieroglyphics,) in writing of the

country, and in Greek letters: and this stela shall be placed in each of the temples of the first, second, and third class existing in all the kingdom."

It was immediately perceived that this inscription might be of great value, and fac similes of it were distributed to the learned throughout Europe. De Sacy, Akerblad, and Dr. Young early made observations upon the Demotic; but it was not until 1819 that any step was taken towards deciphering the hieroglyphic portion. In that year, Dr. Young, in an article contributed by him to the Encyclopædia Britannica, announced his discovery that some of the hieroglyphic signs were also used alphabetically. He did not, however, prosecute the subject farther than to the spelling of a few proper names. And when, three years later, Champollion came forward with his paper on the subject, it was to present the same view, most likely originating also with himself, but unfolding a much more complete and comprehensive system. The truth of his method was soon admitted by the ablest minds, that bent to the labour of examining his evidence. A new life was thus given to Egyptian studies, and many rivals, of the highest learning and talents, entered the field. In a few years, England, Germany, and Italy, as well as France, could boast their hieroglyphic scholars. But the ardour and genius of Champollion not only led the way, but outstripped all competition in subsequent attainment. In 1828, he went at the expense of the French government to Egypt, accompanied by professor Rosellini of Pisa, who was sent out by the government of Tuscany. Four artists attended each.

These two expeditions proceeded jointly and harmoniously with their investigations, which resulted in an almost complete exposition and extensive illustration of the hieroglyphic sys

tem.

At the very time of Champollion's visit to Egypt, several eminent Englishmen, who had learned his method, were at work in the same country in a similar manner. Some of those have, since, obtained great distinction, among whom may be mentioned Burton, Wilkinson, Prudhoe, and Felix.

The materials brought to Europe by Champollion and Rosellini were designed for two immense works, to be published,

the one in Paris, under the care of Champollion, and the other in Florence by Rosellini, the former consisting of the historical monuments and the grammar of the hieroglyphic system; the latter the civil monuments and a hieroglyphical dictionary. Champollion lived only to finish his grammar. He died in 1832, in the forty-second year of his age. By his death the whole task of publication was thrown upon Rosellini, who also died before it was completed. The plates, amounting to four hundred in folio, were issued during his lifetime; the text of the historical monuments, amounting to five volumes, in octavo, appeared from 1832 to 1841, that of the civil monuments, in three volumes, from 1834 to 1836, while two other volumes, one on the religious monuments, and another, containing general indices to the whole, remained to be published at his death.

To the distinguished names already mentioned must now be added those of Bunsen and Lepsius of Prussia, and Birch of England, and several others, who equal if they do not excel their predecessors in Egyptian learning.

An expedition to Egypt under the direction of Dr. Lepsius was in 1842 sent out by the king of Prussia, to "investigate and collect, with an historical and antiquarian view, the ancient monuments in the Nile valley, and upon the peninsula of Sinai." It consisted, besides Lepsius, of seven artists and a dragoman, together with a large number of servants. The government of the country favoured their enterprise; and for three years it was prosecuted with most cheering success. The result is a magnificent work, "surpassing everything that has hitherto appeared on the subject, not only in the truthfulness and accuracy of the drawings and inscriptions, but also in its systematic historical arrangement. The same may be said as to the completeness of its contents, although it gives no monuments previously published, except in cases where the inscriptions were so inaccurate that the corrections could not be marked in any other way." It consists of more than eight hundred lithographed plates in imperial folio, accompanied by descriptive letter press.

Thus, by the industry of recent scholars a vast mass of material has been collected among the ruins of ancient cities and temples, in tombs, and from hitherto illegible manuscripts,

hidden in various European collections. The chief object of Egyptology is now to complete the work of deciphering, and to determine the system of dates according to which the materials are to be arranged. Dr. Bunsen conceives that he has found the key to the chronological problem of the old monarchy, in a critical comparison of the lists of Eratosthenes with existing monuments, in a similar treatment of the fragment of Apollodorus and of Manetho for the middle, and of Manetho for the new. The value of this method and of the conclusions thereby reached, it is not our purpose at present to discuss. Whatever they may amount to, the persevering toil and honest purpose which have attended ingenuity in the effort to attain a true result, merit unqualified approbation.

The student of Biblical history, especially, owes a debt of gratitude to Egyptologers, for the amount of material thus laid to his hands. It remains for him, not superciliously to reject the gift, as is too often done, but with docility to bend to the work of discriminating investigation of its contents. Truth is truth wherever found, and there are eternal principles, whereby it can be distinguished from error, and whereby the certain can also be separated from the doubtful. No mind, properly prepared for the study of Scripture history in other lights, will find, in these recently collected stores, anything to dread which he has not encountered in other secular sources, unless it be some additional toil. And, whether they admit of chronological arrangement or not, the isolated facts are themselves of incalculable value for the elucidation of a phase of ancient life and manners, with which Hebrew civilization was most intimately connected. Erroneous interpretations have undoubtedly been given to some of them; but empty declamation will not afford the corrective. It is to be expected that in matters so much and so long entangled, some mistakes will be made in the earlier efforts to unravel them; but when so many points have been already satisfactorily cleared up, surely the effort to accomplish more is deserving of approbation and encouragement. At all events, works of the gravity, learning, ingenuity, and patient research of those of Rosellini, Wilkinson, Burton, Lepsius, and Bunsen, not only claim, but have a right to demand a serious examination at the hand of every

one who pretends to offer a judgment upon the subject of which they treat; and, though they may embrace more that is still matter of doubt, can no more be set aside by a sneer than can the works of Newton or Laplace.

ART. VII.-1. The Old Testament, translated into Arabic, by Eli Smith. Beirut. 8vo. pp. 160.

2. The New Testament, translated into Arabic, by Eli Smith. Beirut. 8vo. pp. 16.

THE Arabic language is one of the most interesting and important in existence. It claims the honour due to venerable age; for though its extant literature is comparatively recent, its use as a vernacular dialect runs back to a remote antiquity. We have little reason to doubt that the language of Arabia has been as permanent and uniform as her population and her manners. It is also interesting from its affinities to other tongues, belonging to the great Semitic family, and holding a distinguished place between its Hebrew and its Aramaic branches. Its internal structure is marked by a rare combination of simplicity and richness. Though destitute of compounds, and of that variety of moods and tenses, to which the Greek owes so much of its exquisite expressiveness and flexibility, the Arabic possesses a surprising variety of what grammarians call conjugations, but what might have been more accurately designated voices, in which, by a slight change of vowels, or the simplest consonantal addition, the most delicate distinctions, of a certain kind, may be expressed with all precision. This, with the almost fabulous extent of its vocabulary, entitles it to a conspicuous position in the foremost rank of dead or living languages. But over and above this venerable age and these intrinsic qualities, the Arabic possesses an historical interest, not only as the instrument by which invaluable stores of ancient learning were preserved, when Europe was involved in