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kare, "that," "he," "she," "it" (Latin ille, French

celui-, celle-, cela)

tare, "who?”

nani, "what?"

izure, "which?"

31. The foregoing are the substantive forms, before leaving which the student should note the plurals kore-ra, "these" (сеихci, celles-ci), sore-ra and kare-ra (ceux-, celles-).

32. The adjective forms, i.e., those that are employed to define nouns, are:

kono, "this" (Latin hic, French ce)
sono, "that" (Latin iste, French ce)
kono, "that" (Latin ille, French ce)

33. The forms kono, sono, and kano also do duty for kore no, "of this"; sore no and kare no, "of that," of which they are contractions; thus kono kuni, "this country"; kono tame ni, "for the sake of this." Sono also frequently means "his," "her," "its."

34. Tare is used of persons only, nani of things only (save in one or two compounds such as nani-bito or nam-pito, "what person?"), izure of both persons and things.

35. "What kind of?" is expressed by ika naru, the corresponding adverb ika ni meaning "how?"

36. Note also itsu, "when?" and izuko, "where?" words which are really nouns, though corresponding to English interrogative adverbs. Like other nouns, they take postpositions to modify their sense, thus:

itsu no koto narishi? lit., "It was a thing of
when?" i.e., "When did it happen"?
izuko ye, lit., "to where?" i.e., "whither?"
izuko yori, lit., "from where?" i.e., "whence?"

tare no, "whose?"

nani no, "what?"

izure no, "which?"

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

37. The indefinite pronouns are formed from tare, nani, and izure in the following manner:

tare mo, "anyone," "everyone"; tare ka, "someone"

nani mo, "anything," "everything"; nani ka, "something" izure mo, "either," "both," "all"; izureka, "one or other," "which"

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

38. The Japanese language has no relative pronouns or relative words of any kind. The way in which their absence is made good will be understood from the following examples: yukishi hito, "the person who went" (lit., "the went person"); hisu-beki koto, "a thing which should be kept secret" (lit., "a should-keepsecret thing").

39. As seen by these examples, the verb or adjective of the relative clause must be put in the attributive form. If there are several relative clauses, then only the verb or adjective of the last clause takes the attributive form, all the preceding clauses having the verb or adjective in the indefinite form. Thus: Kokorozashi tesseki wo idaki, gi wa sosetsu wo azamuki, fubo saishi wo mo on no tame ni enri shi, hisshi wo issen ni kiwameshi yūshi shi-jū-shichi nin, "Forty-seven heroes, whose determination was as iron, whose devotion was not to be damped by difficulty, who for their lord's sake had left father and mother, wife and children, and who had resolved to sacrifice their lives in the attempt."

Here idaki, azamuki, and shi are the indefinite forms of the verbs idaku, azamuku (§ 138), and suru (§ 146), while kiwameshi is the attributive form of the first past tense of kiwamuru (§134c).

40. Occasionally the Japanese equivalents of English relative clauses appear ambiguous. Thus: mishi hito, lit., "the saw person," may signify either "the person who saw," or "the person For an explanation and illustrations of these very important technical terms see chap. vii and beginning of chap. viii.

whom I (you, he, etc.) saw"; idasu tokoro, lit., "the send place," may be either "the place whence something is sent," or "the place to which something is sent." But a glance at the context generally leaves no doubt as to the meaning. For instance, sa omoishi wake cannot mean "the reason which thought so," as such a collocation of words would have no sense. It can only be interpreted to signify "the reason for which I (he, etc.), thought so." Similarly, shuttatsu seshi toki can only mean "the time when I (he, etc.) started." As seen by the foregoing examples, the prepositions which often accompany an English relative pronoun are not expressed in Japanese.

41. Not infrequently the words tokoro no (more rarely no alone) are inserted between the attributive and the noun, as mishi tokoro no hito instead of the shorter mishi hito, "the man I saw"; sude ni nareru no nochi for sude ni nareru nochi, "after it had already been done." These circumlocutions add nothing to the sense; their use originated in the imitation of Chinese idiom. Sometimes, however, no legitimately represents the English relative, thus: on hanashi no kenken, "the various matters which were mentioned by you" (lit., "the matter-matter of the honorable speaking").

Compare such English expressions as “dining-room,” signifying "a room in which people dine"; "shaving-brush,” signifying "a brush with which you help yourself to shave," etc.

CHAPTER IV

THE NUMERAL

THE CARDINAL NUMBERS

42. There are two sets of numerals, one of native and the other of Chinese origin. The native set is now obsolete except for the first ten numbers, which are as follows:

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43. These numerals may either be used as independent words, or compounded with substantives. When used independently, they may either stand quite alone, or follow or (very rarely) precede a substantive, or stand in an attributive relation to the substantive by means of the postposition no; thus: futatsu ari, "there are two"; hako futatsu, or futatsu no hako, "two boxes."

44. When compounded, they invariably precede the substantive. In this case the first nine drop the syllable tsu, which is properly a suffix, and long to becomes short to; thus: futa-tsuki, "two months"; to-tsuki, "ten months."

45. The set of numerals borrowed from the Chinese is:

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46. These numerals cannot be used independently, but must always precede a noun, forming a sort of compound with the latter; thus: ichi-nin, "one person"; it-ten (for ichi-ten), "one point." As seen by these examples, the nouns with which the Chinese numerals combine are almost always of Chinese origin. Similarly, Japanese and Chinese numerals cannot be used together. Shi, "four," is, however, often replaced by yo, the native Japanese word, as in jū-yo-nin, "fourteen persons"; ni-jū-yokka, "the twenty-fourth day of the month."

AUXILIARY NUMERALS

47. "Auxiliary numeral" is the name given to a certain class of nouns with which the Chinese numerals constantly combine. They have English analogues in such expressions as "a hundred head of cattle," "so many panes of glass"; but are much more extensively used. Thus one war-vessel" is gunkan is-sō; "one soldier" is heishi ichi-mei (or ichi-nin); "one pen" is fude ip-pon (less frequently isso no gunkan, ichi-nin no heishi, etc.).

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48. The following are the most important auxiliary numerals: chō, for various things with handles, such as tools, muskets, and jinrikishas

fū, for letters

fuku, for scrolls, sips of tea, and whiffs of tobacco hai, for cupfuls and glassfuls

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