8. Though retaining somewhat of its force of "that," to

must often be otherwise rendered (e.g., by "to," "into," "with," "from"), or altogether dropped in English; thus: Aware naru arisama to nareri, "He fell into a pitiful plight." Musume to ninin, "two counting my daughter" (lit., "two with my daughter"). Kore to chigau, "It differs from this."

9. "And"; in this sense it is generally repeated after each of the words enumerated just as in the colloquial.

59. Tote, a compound of to, "that," and te, the termination of the gerund, so that it literally signifies ".. ing that." It is used as an equivalent of to iite, "saying that"; to omoite, "thinking that"; to toite, "asking whether"; and of similar gerundial phrases. Thus: Uchi ni kaeran tote, tachitari, "He stood up, saying that he was going home."

cause

Very frequently tote follows a verb in the conditional mood. It and the conditional termination eba then together signify "besaid (thought, believed, etc.) to be," "on the strength of (something said, done, or imagined)"; thus: Hito to shite mizukara i-shoku-ju wo kyu suru wa kataki koto ni arazu. Kono koto wo naseba tote, aete hokoro-beki ni arazu, “ It is not a difficult thing for a human being to provide himself with clothing, food, and shelter. He must not dare to be proud on the strength of his doing so."

.

60. Wa, an emphatic or separative particle. "With regard to," "so far as is concerned," are its most explicit English equivalents. But its force is generally sufficiently indicated in an English translation by an emphasis on the word to which it is suffixed, and by the placing of that word at or near the beginning of the sentence. Te ni tazusōuru wa, "(With regard to) the thing he holds in his hand." Kotae-keru wa, "He answered" (lit., "the thing he answered [was]"). In both of the foregoing examples mono is understood before wa. Nishi wa Fuji, kita wa Tsukuba nari, "To the west stands Mount Fuji, to the north, Mount Tsukuba." Kono jiken wa betsu ni go hōdō itasazu, "Concerning this matter I send no special information." Saran to suru toki wa, "when about to depart." Sono jin-in wa nennen kore wo sadamu, "The number (of men) is fixed each year" (lit., "as for that number, yearly [they] fix it"). As shown in the last example, it is often convenient to render the noun followed by wa as a nominative in English; but it is never a nominative properly so called in the Japanese construction. It is simply a word isolated and generally placed at the head of the clause for the sake of emphasis. True nominatives or subjects are rare in Japanese, most sentences being subjectless (§§ 241, 243).

61. Wo. (a) A sign of what is in European languages named the accusative or objective case. Kami wo shinzuru, "to believe (in) God." Kaze no nagu wo matsu, "to await the getting calm of the wind," i.e., "to wait till the wind goes down."

b) When suffixed to the attributive form of a verb or adjective at the end of a clause, wo has an adversative force, which is generally best rendered by "yet" or "but": Seiyo-sukuri no tsumori narishi wo, kondo aratamete Nihon-zukuri to sadameraru, "It had been intended to build (the palace) in European style, but it has now been decided to erect a Japanese building instead." Some writers, following the usage of the colloquial, use either ga or no ni for wo in this case.

c) The connection between the two chief uses of wo is found in the fact that this particle was originally nothing more than an interjection serving, as it were, to interrupt the sentence, and draw particular attention to the word to which it was suffixed. For the same reason it is not attached to every noun which, according to European ideas of grammar, is in the accusative case; thus: fumi kaku toki, "when writing a letter."

d) Before the verb suru, "to do," it is generally absent, thus: honyaku suru, "to make a translation," "to translate."

e) Under (a) above may be classed some apparently anomalous uses of wo by which the student is often greatly perplexed. 1. Such phrases as Tenno Heika wo hajime-tatematsuri, "from His Imperial Majesty downward." Here the literal rendering would be: "respectfully placing His Majesty the Emperor at the beginning," a construction which we should call accusative.

2. Such phrases as Heiwa wo ri nari to omoeba

....,

"thinking that peace would be advantageous. ." Here the literal rendering of the Japanese construction is "thinking (of) peace, 'it will be advantageous." Heiwa is therefore really an accusative, though rendered in English by a nominative.

3. The use of wo after what corresponds to the subject of an English passive verb. Thus: Minami ni miyuru shima wo Oshima to iu, "The island visible to the south is called Oshima." See also the remarks on the nature of the Japanese passive verb (§ 193).

4. Wo at the end of a sentence. In such cases there is an inversion of the usual construction, the verb being placed at the beginning of the clause instead of at the end, for the sake of emphasis and in imitation of Chinese idiom. Thus: Kou yoyaku no shokun wa dai-shikyu ga kamei aran koto wo (for Yoyaku no koto wo kou), "We trust that gentlemen will hasten to add their names to the list of subscribers."

5. Such elliptical phrases as Kampisei wo meizeraretari, lit., "(They) have been commanded official expense students," i.e., "They have been commanded to become students at government expense," or more freely, "They have been notified that the expenses of their education will be defrayed by the government."

62. Ya, a particle of interrogation, doubt, or exclamation. a) As a direct interrogative particle, its use is chiefly confined to (1) sentences which contain some other interrogative word, and (2) those in which the question asked is a purely rhetorical one, i.e., not a question properly so called, asked in order to elicit information. Thus: Kono toki ni atatte, waga Nihon no jimmin wa ikaga subeki ya? "In such a case how would our Japanese compatriots act?" Karada wa koromo yori mo masareru mono narazu ya? "Is not the body more than raiment?"

b) Its more frequent use is as a particle expressing doubt. Thus: moshi ya, "if perchance"; to iu ga, sono jitsu ika

....

ga ni ya, "It is said that ....,” “ ," "but we know not whether it be true." Heiba no aida ni ai-miru ni itaru ya mo hakaru bekarazu, "Who knows, perhaps we may encounter each other on the field of battle."

c) At the end of a sentence ya is sometimes, though rarely, a mere exclamation. Makoto naru kana kono koto ya, "Oh! how true these words are!"

d) Good writers sometimes (in imitation of Chinese idiom) use ya in a half-emphatic explanatory manner. Thus: Teki no kogeki shi kitari ya gen wo matazu, "We do not await the word that the enemy will come to the attack," that is, "It is not necessary to say that the enemy will attack."

e) But sometimes it sinks into a mere expletive, as ima ya, "now"; kanarazu ya, "positively."

63. The syntax of ya presents some anomalies, ya being oссаsionally preceded by the conclusive instead of by the attributive form of the verb or adjective, especially in the case of the present tense of adjectives, of the present tense of the verb aru, "to be" (conclusive ari), and of the present tense of the negative voice of verbs and adjectives in general. This happens chiefly when the question asked is a rhetorical one, as in the example from the New Testament above. The final verb or adjective of a sentence containing ya is also often put in the conclusive, contrary to the general rule whereby interrogative words govern the final verb or adjective in the attributive form. The conception is more apparent than real, as it occurs almost exclusively in cases where ya is not properly interrogative, but has one of the meanings given above under the heading (b), where an example will be found (concl. bekarazu for attrib. bekarazaru). In (d) the conclusive is always used.

64. Zo, an emphatic particle less intense than koso, but best rendered in English by either of the means mentioned under koso, § 56.

Cf. § 62a concl. narazu for attrib. narazaru.

CHAPTER VI

THE POSTPOSITION

65. Japanese postpositions correspond for the most part to English prepositions. But some words which we should call adverbs and conjunctions, and others for which English has no equivalents, are included in this category. When suffixed to a verb or adjective, postpositions require such verb or adjective to be in one of the attributive forms, a general rule which is subject to exceptions mentioned in the course of the present chapter. Postpositions are of two kinds, simple and compound.

THE SIMPLE POSTPOSITION

The chief simple postpositions, with their most usual significations, are:

66. Kara, "from," "since." Kore kara, "henceforward." 67. Made, "till," "as far as," "by," "down to," "to," "to such a degree." Kore made, "thus far," "hitherto." Such phrases as myogonichi made may signify either "till the day after tomorrow" or "by the day after tomorrow," but the latter meaning is the more usual.

68. Nagara. (a) Suffixed to nouns, signifies "just as it is," "without change," thus: mendo nagara, "tedious as it is," "though a bore."

b) More often it follows verbs (always in the indefinite, not in the attributive form), and then with the sense of "while," "during"; thus: yuki-nagara, "while going."

69. Ni, "in," "into," "to." It has a great number of idiomatic uses, of which the following are the most noteworthy:

a) What in English is called the subject of a sentence is often marked by ni followed by wa or oite. This gives the expression an honorific tinge, which is generally emphasized by putting the