about the middle of last century, by the merchants in England and their agents in Oporto, of the bad quality and adulteration of the wine, the matter came under the notice of the Portuguese government; and the method which it took to redress the evil is singularly illustrative of its sagacity and principles of action. Instead of leaving the matter to be adjusted between the growers of the wine and the merchants, or, at farthest, contenting itself with confiscating such wines as were found to be adulterated, made over the whole district to a joint-stock company, and invested them with almost despotic privileges. Thus the agents of the company were authorised to class the wines belonging to individuals, and to fix their maximum price; so that the company became, in fact, the sole buyer, at its own price, of the wines produced within the limits of its charter. But for the rooted taste for the wines of the Upper Douro established in Great Britain through the influence of the long-continued high discriminating duty on French wines, it is probable that the institution of the company would have destroyed the Portuguese wine trade. It has how ever, owing to the continued demand for the British markets, continued to keep its ground, or rather to increase, though not nearly to the extent that, under other circumstances, might have been anticipated. It is a curious fact, that the Oporto wine company, after being suppressed by Don Pedro as a nuisance, has been re-established, though with less oppressive privileges. In addition to port, considerable quantities of Lisbon, Calcavella, and other white wines, are exported. Some red wine is also exported from Figueiras.

are in general carried on in separate cottages, like the coarse woollens of North Wales, or the linen of Normandy, and are founded on the primitive plan of every family manufacturing for its own consumption. Manufacturing establishments are but few in number, and are principally for the production of woollens, silk, and earthenware. Cotton has also been attempted of late years, and paper, glass, and gunpowder are made in a few places. The cottons, woollens, linens, hardware, and earthenware of England are all largely imported into Portugal, and are used by all but the very lowest classes. A very superficial knowledge even of some of the commonest arts exist. The carriages of all kinds, more particularly waggons and carts, agricultural implements, cutlery, locks, and keys, are ludicrously bad. The chief forte of the Portuguese appears to lie in ship-building and stone-masonry; they also excel in embroidery, and make good artificial flowers, and lace.

The navigation and commercial intercourse of Portugal are of more importance; and though, even in the times of Emanuel and Albuquerque, they were by no means so extensive as is generally supposed, they were, notwithstanding, very considerable, and appeared immense from the small amount of the shipping and trade of other nations. For a long time past the import and export trade of the country has been conducted chiefly by foreign merchants, particularly British, settled in Lisbon and Oporto. The exports consist almost entirely of raw produce, or of wine, oil, salt, wool, fruits, and cork. The imports include corn and flour, cotton goods (by far the most important article), hardware, woollens, fish, linens, earthenware, drugs, tea, and coal.

The pastures in Minho, and in the Sierra Estrella and some other parts, are excellent; but through- The commercial relations of Portugal are chiefly out most part of the kingdom they are very much with Great Britain, and there is very little trade, neglected. In consequence of the great number either by land or sea, with other countries. Next of fast days enjoined by the church, few cattle to Great Britain, but far below, stand Brazil and were reared; and a large proportion of those re- France. The relative importance of British trade quired for the consumption of the principal towns with Portugal will be seen by the following figures: were imported from Galicia and other adjacent-The imports for the year 1863, from all counSpanish provs. Horses are scarce, oxen being com- tries, amounted to 14,287,289,742 milreis; from monly used for draught, except in towns. Mules, Great Britain and British possessions they amounted however, are numerous, and of an excellent breed; to 7,220,990,500; and from Newfoundland to and, with asses, are generally preferred, on account 274,283,822 milreis. The goods which entered of the rugged nature of the country, to horses for Portugal for home consumption from Great Britain travelling. Sheep breeding is principally con- and British possessions amounted to considerably ducted in Beira, whence large flocks are sent to over one-half the entire importations from all other winter in Alemtejo. The wool of the Portuguese countries, while the exports to Great Britain and sheep might, no doubt, with a little attention, be British possessions extended to nearly one-third rendered equal to that of the Spanish sheep; but of the entire export trade of the country. In the no pains have been taken to improve its quality. year 1863 the entire real value of produce imGoats and hogs are numerous; and the latter are ported into the United Kingdom from Portugal of a superior kind, and yield excellent hams. The amounted to 2,333,8097., which sum exceeded that fisheries, which were formerly important, are now of the preceding year's returns by 293,4137; that insignificant; except in Algarve, where tunny and of 1861, by 370,9107.; that of 1860, by 453,660Z.; pilchards are taken. that of 1859, by 823,0697.; and that of 1858, by 1,254,0347. Wine, as already stated, is the chief article of Portuguese exports. The official returns relative to the wine trade of the Douro district show that in 1852 the number of pipes produced was 92,090, of which 35,833 were approved by the tasters as exportable; in 1862 the total quantity produced was 71,592 pipes, of which 54,291 were approved. The registered produce of the vintage of 1863 in the Douro district amounted to 82,866 pipes. There were exported from Oporto in 1860, 27,860 pipes, of which 22,416 were sent to Great Britain. In 1861 the exports were 26,908 pipes, of which 22,945 reached Great Britain; and in 1862 the exports reached 29,711 pipes, the number sent to Great Britain being 24,832, A large proportion of the residue was exported to British possessions.

The mineral products are considerable, though few mines except those of iron have been wrought, in consequence partly of the scarcity of fuel, and partly of the supply of minerals (chiefly copper and lead) from Brazil. The mountains abound in fine marble, and contain traces of gold and silver. Large quantities of salt of a very superior quality are produced in bays along the coast by natural evaporation, especially at Setubal or St. Ubes, whence it is largely exported.

Gold dust is obtained by washings; and in antiquity the Tagus was famous for its golden sands: Tagus auriferis arenis celebratur.'" (Plin. Hist. Nat., lib. iv. cap. 22.) Coal is found near Oporto and elsewhere; and lead and antimony are raised, but not to any considerable amount.

Manufactures and Trades.-The manufactures of Portugal are in a very backward state: they

Till the recent construction of a line of railway

from Lisbon to Oporto, and another line to Badajoz | dated July 5, 1852. The crown is hereditary in

in Spain, there were scarcely any means of in- the female as well as male line, but with preferternal communication in Portugal. There is no ence of the inale in case of equal birthright. The navigable canal; and, till of late years, not a single constitution recognises three powers in the state, road in Portugal was practicable for carriages for the legislative, executive, and moderating' aumore than 20 or 30 m. from Lisbon. In fact, the thority, the two last of which reside in the soveonly mode of travelling by land was in a litter, or reign and his responsible ministers. There are on the back of a mule or horse; and in the wine two legislative chambers, the Camara dos Pares,' country of the Douro, or in the province of Minho, or House of Peers, and the 'Camara dos Diputados,' two oxen sometimes took a whole day to convey or House of Commons, which are conjunctively a pipe of wine 5 or 6 m.; and to prevent the cart called the General Cortes. The peers, unlimited from being overturned, it was attended by 2 men. in number, but actually comprising 115, are named Accounts are kept in reis and milreis; the milrea for life by the sovereign, by whom also the presicontains 1,000 reis, and is worth about 4s. 6d. The dent and vice-president of the first chamber are dobrao or doubloon 37. 68. 6d.; the crusado = nominated. The peerage was formerly hereditary about 2s. 6d. The lb. is 4,589 kilogr., or rather in certain families; but on May 27, 1864, the more than the lb. avoird.; the arroba = 32 lbs. ; the cortes passed a law abolishing hereditary succesquintal 4 arrobas. The mayo for grain, &c.=sion. The members of the second chamber are 24 bushels; the almudo = 4 gallons. The Portuguese foot is a little longer than the English.

=

Constitution.-Like the peninsular kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, Portugal had anciently her cortes or assemblies of the states. One of these assemblies, held at Lamego in 1141, conferred the title of king on Alfonso Henriquez, who had two years previously defeated the Moors in the great battle of Ourique. The cortes at the same time enacted a law for regulating the succession to the throne, in which, among other things, it is laid down that females shall not be eligible to the crewn, though in the direct order of succession, if they have married a foreigner, and that their marrying a foreigner when on the throne shall be considered equivalent to an act of abdication. The powers of the cortes corresponded, in other respects, with those of similar assemblies in other countries; but their privileges and those of the sovereign were very ill defined; and the latter contrived, in the course of time, to engross all the powers of the state; the government of Portugal became, in all respects, as despotical as that of Spain; and the last convocation of the Cortes took place in 1697. (See L'Art de Verifier les Dates, part II. tom. vii. 1-40, 8vo. ed.)

chosen in direct election by all citizens possessing a clear annual income of 133 milreis, or 221. The deputies must have an income of at least 390 miireis, or 894, per annum; but lawyers, professors, physicians, or the graduates of any of the learned professions, need no property qualification. Continental Portugal is divided into 37 electoral districts, returning 154 deputies, to which Madeira and the Azores add 25. Each deputy has a remuneration of about 108, a day during the session. The annual session lasts three months, and fresh elections must take place at the end of every four years. In case of dissolution, a new parliament must be called together within thirty days. The general cortes meet and separate at specified periods, without the intervention of the sovereign, and the latter has no veto on a law passed twice by both houses. All laws relating to finance and general taxation must originate in the chamber of deputies.

Justice is administered in the first instance by the Juizes de Fora; and appeals are made to the corregidors of the provs., and from these to the Casa de supplicação at Lisbon, and the Relação da porto at Oporto. All these tribunals are, however, subordinate to the royal court in Lisbon. Great From this period down to the administration of abuses are said to exist in almost every departthe Marquis de Pombal (1750-1776), every abusement, both in the judicial and administrative continued to multiply, and Portugal was distin- branches, the inadequacy of the salaries leading guished only by the imbecility of her government, to the acceptance of bribes. the power and profligacy of the nobility and clergy, and the poverty and indolence of her people. The Marquis de Pombal suppressed the order of the Jesuits and confiscated their estates; he also suppressed some of the more oppressive privileges of the nobility and clergy, and effected various important reforms in several departments of the administration. In other respects, however, his policy evinced the narrowest and most illiberal views; and, on his dismissal from power, most part of the old abuses in the government revived, and the country continued in its former state of apathy and abasement.

The events connected with the great war in the peninsula, the emigration of the court to Brazil, the long continuance of the English armies in the -country, the organisation of the Portuguese army on an improved footing, and the influence of the changes in Spain, laid the foundations of a new order of things. The nation was dissatisfied with the continued residence of the court in Brazil, which, in fact, made Portugal a dependency of the latter, and the wish for some fundamental changes in the frame of the government became general, At length, in August, 1820, a revolution broke out, and a free constitution was soon after established. The present fundamental law of the kingdom is the Carta de Ley,' granted by King Pedro IV., April 29, 1826, and altered by an additional act,

The religion of Portugal is the Roman Catholic, unalloyed with any tamt of Protestantism, but contributing but little, if anything, to the morality of the people. The Inquisition no longer interferes with freedom of conscience, having been abolished in 1821. The Portuguese church is under the jurisdiction of a patriarch, with extensive powers; three archbishops, and fourteen bishops. Notwithstanding the hostility of the Marquis de Pombal to the monks, who used to say of them that they were la vermine la plus dangereuse qui puisse ronger un état, their numbers previously to the late revolutions were estimated at about 8,000, and the revenue of the conventual establishments was supposed to exceed 1,200,000Z. a year. However, an end has been put to this state of things: the monks at present have to support themselves as they best may, on a small stipend that has been allowed them, and most of their property has been confiscated.'"

The language of Portugal is merely a dialect of the Spanish, differing but little more from the latter than Scotch from English. Education is, at once, little diffused and of bad quality. There is a university at Coimbra; besides which, seventeen high seminaries and numerous schools exist, affording instruction to about 33,000 pupils. With the exception of Camoens, few Portuguese authors are known beyond the limits of their country,

The army consists of about 28,000 men; 21,500 | "It is fit only for beasts to carry burdens."' In infantry, 3,700 cavalry, and 2,400 artillerymen. one respect, however, their tastes are identical, The forces of Portugal, whether naval or military, bull-fights being quite as popular among the Porhave in general been very inefficient. A partial tuguese as among the Spaniards. The statements stimulus was given, in 1760, to the Portuguese of another traveller, Semple, as to the Portuguese army by a German commander, the Count de character, coincide with those of Du Chatelet. Lippe; but after his death his plans were not fol- The Portuguese are generally dark-complexioned lowed up; and it was not till 1809 that Portu- and thin, with black hair, irascible and revengeful guese troops, recruited by British funds, and dis- in their tempers, and eager in their gestures on ciplined by British officers, became worthy the trivial occasions. They are also said to be indoancient renown of their country. The navy, in lent, deceitful, and cowardly; but they are tem1863, comprised 34 men-of-war, with an aggregate perate in diet, and that may be classed at the of 294 guns. Many of the ships, however, were head of their virtues, if, indeed, they have many reported to be not seaworthy. more. They have no public spirit, and, consequently, no national character. An Englishman, or a Frenchman, may be distinguished in foreign countries by an air and manners peculiar to his nation; but any meagre, swarthy man may pass for a Portuguese.' All classes seem to despise cleanliness; and Lisbon and the Portuguese towns generally are, certainly, entitled to the not very enviable distinction of being about the filthiest in Europe. The morals of both sexes are said to be lax in the extreme, and assassination is a common offence. But the fair presumption is, that, under the beneficial influence of modern progress, the abuses that have depressed and degraded the nation will be extirpated; and that the Portuguese will once more recover their ancient place among European nations.

The public revenue, in the financial year 18636-4, amounted to-in the budget-15,371,266 milreis, or 3,415,8577., and the expenditure, in the same period, to 16,910,354 milreis, or 3,757,8567. The revenue has not much risen for the last thirty years. It was 11,940,151 milreis in 1834; two millions less, or 9,843,170 in 1844; and 10,793,407 milreis in 1854. In the financial year 1858-59 the public income amounted to 12,206,747 milreis, or 2,746,5187.; and in 1860-61 to 12,504,534 milreis, or 2,813,5204. The public debt amounted, at the end of 1862, to 30,635,000Z., of which the foreign debt constituted about one-half.

History. This country, anciently called Lusitania, was taken possession of by the Romans about anno 200 B.C., previously to which, some Phoni

have been planted on its shores. It remained a Roman province till the fifth century, when it was invaded by the Suevi and Visigoths. The Moors landing in the S. of Spain in the early part of the eighth century, and meeting with little resistance from its thinly spread population, easily overran the greater part of Portugal; but the nature of the country favouring the operations of the inhabitants, they were not long in recovering possession of its more northern and mountainous portion. The name of Lusitania seems to have been exchanged about this period for that of Portu

The Portuguese are but little indebted to the accounts given of them by travellers. But their character, as drawn by Du Chatelet (Voyage en Portugal, i. 69-71), though not very flattering, is held to be nearly correct. Il est, je pense, peu de peuple plus laid que celui de Portugal. Il est petit, basané, mal conformé. L'intérieur répond,cian and Carthaginian colonies are supposed to en général, assez à cette repoussante enveloppe, surtout à Lisbonne, où les hommes paroissent réunir tous les vices de l'âme et du corps. Il y a, au reste, entre la capitale et le nord de ce royaume, une difference marquée sous ces deux rapports. Dans les provinces septentrionales, les hommes sont moins noirs et moins laids, plus francs, plus lians dans la société, bien plus braves, et plus laborieux; mais encore plus asservis, s'il est possible, aux préjugés. Cette différence existe également pour les femmes; elles sont beaucoup plus blanches que celles du sud. Les Portugais, considérés en général, sont vindicatifs, bas, vains, railleurs, pré-cale, subsequently changed into Portugal, from somptueux à l'excès, jaloux, et ignorans. Après avoir retracé les défauts que j'ai cru apercevoir en eux, je serois injuste si je me taisois sur leurs bonnes qualités. Ils sont attachés à leur patrie, amis généreux, fidèles, sobres, charitables. Ils seroient bons chrétiens, si le fanatisme ne les aveugloit pas. Ils sont si accoutumés aux pratiques de la religion, qu'ils sont plus superstitieux que dévots. Les hidalgos, ou les grands de Portugal, sont très-bornés dans leur éducation; orgueilleux et insolens; vivant dans la plus grande ignorance, ils ne sortent presque jamais de leur pays pour aller voir les autres peuples.'

The Spaniards and Portuguese regard each other with a deep-rooted national antipathy.

Well doth the Spanish hind the difference know "Twixt him and Lusian slave, the lowest of the low.' Strip a Spaniard of all his virtues, and you make a good Portuguese of him,' says the Spanish proverb. I have heard it more truly said,' says Dr. Southey (Letters, ii. 64), ‘add hypocrisy to a Spaniard's vices, and you have the Portuguese character.' The two nations differ, perhaps purposely, in many of their habits. 'Almost every man in Spain smokes: the Portuguese never smoke, but most of them take snuff. None of the Spaniards will use a wheelbarrow; none of the Portuguese will carry a burden; the one says, "It is fit only for beasts to draw carriages;" the other, that

the circumstance of Oporto, the principal stronghold of the Christians, being then called Calle, or Porto Calle. (D'Anville, Etats Formés en Europe, p. 192.)

In the 11th century Portugal became an carldom, under the kingdom of Leon and Castile; and during the 12th it was erected into an independent kingdom. Its power now rapidly increased; and by the acquisition of Algarve, in 1249, it arrived at its present limits. In the latter half of the 14th century the voyages and discoveries commenced which have shed immortal lustre on the Portuguese name. During the 15th century, Madeira, the Canaries, and Azores were discovered and colonised; and, in 1498, Vasco de Gamia doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and opened a new route to India. In the following century the Portuguese explored the coasts of Newfoundland and America; took possession of Brazil; made important acquisitions in India and the Persian Gulf, and discovered the Moluccas; by which successful enterprises they monopolised the commerce of the East, and a great share of that of the West. But the prosperity of Portugal was short-lived. After the disastrous defeat and death of King Sebastian, in Africa, in 1578, Philip II. of Spain seized on the kingdom, which remained a Spanish prov. from 1580 to 1640; and when she regained her independence, the greater part of her commerce, and her foreign possessions,

the prov. It suffered greatly from earthquakes, especially in 1684 and 1812.

were in the hands of the Dutch. But, notwithstanding the emancipation of Brazil, Portugal still preserves the Azores, Madeira, Cape de Verd, and Guinea Islands; the settlements of Angola and Mozambique, in Africa, and those of Goa, Dilli (Timor), and Macao, in Asia. In 1807, Portugal was invaded by the French, when the royal family removed to Brazil. John VI. dying in 1826, Dom Miguel usurped the throne in 1827, which he held till 1833; when, after a lengthened contest, Donna Maria II., founder of the still reigning house of Braganza-Coburg, was estab-handsome. The streets are well built, very clean, lished in its possession.

POSEN, a prov. of the Prussian monarchy, comprising the portion of Poland assigned to Prussia by the treaty of Vienna in 1815, having N. the prov. of Prussia and Brandenburg, E. Poland, and S. and W. Silesia and Brandenburg. It is of a triangular shape. Area, 11,374 sq. m. Pop. 1,494,621 in 1861. Principal towns, Posen and Bromberg. It is divided into two regencies, and these again into 6 circles. Surface generally flat, and in part occupied by extensive marshes and forests. Principal rivers, Warta, Netze, and Obra. Soil various, but generally clay and black loam intermixed with sand, and naturally very fertile. Principal products, corn, timber, wool, and honey. Minerals and manufactures unimportant. A vast number of leeches are taken in this prov.. especially in the circle of Bomster. This is the most backward of the Prussian provinces. When it first came into the possession of Prussia, in 1792, the great bulk of its inhabs, were in a state of predial slavery, and were as ignorant and brutalised as can well be imagined. The vigorous and enlightened government of Prussia at once put down the excesses of the nobles, and has exerted itself, by introducing an improved judicial system, establishing schools and otherwise, to improve the habits and condition of the people. These efforts, combined with the total abolition of servitude, have had the best effects; though a lengthened period will still have to elapse before the vices and habits engendered by centuries of slavery and degradation be completely eradicated, and the population become as intelligent and industrious as in the more advanced provinces.

POSEN, a city of Prussia, cap. prov. and reg, of the same name, at the confluence of the Prozna with the Warta, 147 m. E. by S. Berlin, on the railway from Breslau to Stettin. Pop. 51,232 in 1861, exclusive of a garrison of 7,353 men. Since the peace of 1815 its fortifications have been vastly improved, and it is now one of the bulwarks of the kingdom on the side of Russia. Though an old town, it is pretty well built. Principal edifices, cathedral and town-house. It is the residence of the provincial authorities, and of an archbishop; and has a court of appeal, a gymnasium or college, a theological seminary for the education of Catholics, and a school of arts. The business of watch-making is carried on to some extent; and there are manufactures of leather, linen, and fire-arms. It has three great annual fairs. Here, as in the rest of Poland, the buying and selling of goods is chiefly managed by Jews, who occupy a particular quarter of the town.

POTOSI (SAN LUIS DE), a city of Mexico, cap. of the state of same name, near the source of the river Tampico, 165 m. W. Tampico, and 75 m. NNE. Guanaxuato; lat. 220 N., long. 103° 1' W. Pop. of the city itself estimated at 15,000, but including the barrios, or suburbs, which cover a large extent of ground, it may amount to from 50,000 to 60,000. It presents a fine appearance: the churches are lofty, and some of them very and intersect each other at right angles. The houses in the square, and in the principal avenues leading to it, are of stone, and two stories high; those in the suburbs are low, and of adobes (sundried bricks). The government house in the square has a front of cut stone, and is ornamented with Ionic pilasters. The market-place is well supplied with meat, fruits, and vegetables. From its situation the city is the natural depôt of the trade of Tampico with the N. and W. Mexican states. Its foreign trade is at present almost wholly in the hands of natives of Old Spain or of the U. States. The European imports consist principally of French brandies, wines, silks, and cloths, English hardware and printed cotton goods, with some mantas or ordinary cotton manufactures from the U. States. In addition to its foreign trade, San Luis supplies the neighbouring states of Leon and Cohahuila with homemade goods of various kinds. The people are better dressed, and there are fewer beggars here, than in almost any other part of Mexico.

The mines in the neighbourhood have long ceased to be wrought, from exhaustion of the ores; they were, however, formerly very productive. A college, founded by voluntary subscription, and in a flourishing state, affords gratuitous instruction to poor students in Latin, jurisprudence, theology, and constitutional rights. The city was founded in 1586.

POTOSI, a city of Upper Peru or Bolivia, famous for its rich silver mines, on the N. declivity of the Cerro di Potosi, a mountain belonging to the Andes, lat. 19° 36′ S., long, 67° 21, 45′ W.; 64 m. SW. Chuquisaca. Early in the 17th century this city is said to have had 150,000 inhabs.; but it is now almost deserted. It is built on uneven ground, and has a spacious square in the centre. The government-house, the town-house, and the gaol, under the same roof, occupy one side; the treasury and government offices another; a convent, and an unfinished church the third; and private houses the fourth. Extensive suburbs, once tenanted by Indians and miners, are now without an inhab,, and the vestiges of the streets are all that remain. Among the most remarkable public edifices is the mint, substantially built of stone, in 1751, at a cost of 1,148,000 dolls. In the principal square an obelisk 60 ft high was erected in honour of Bolivar, in 1825. The houses of Potosi, generally, are of stone or brick, and of only one story, with wooden balconies, but without chimneys. The country round is perfectly barren, and the climate disagreeable; the rays of the sun are scorching at noon, while at night the air is piercingly cold. The market is well supPOTENZA (an. Potentia), a city of South plied; though, from many articles having to be Italy, cap. of prov. of its name, on a hill in a brought from a considerable distance, the neceswild and rocky tract, near the source of the Basi-saries, as well as the luxuries of life, are very ento, 54 m. E. Salerno. Pop. 12,789 in 1862. The city is fortified, and has a cathedral, several The Cerro di Potosi, which is 18 m. in circuit, other churches, and convents, a seminary, a royal and rises to the height of 16,037 ft., is supposed to college, lyccum, and hospital; but, speaking gene- be a solid mass either of the ores or the matrix of rally, it is poor and meanly built. It is a bishop's the precious metals, of which it has produced a see, and the seat of the superior judicial courts for vast quantity. Viewed from the city, it appears

dear.

of that illustrious prince, and the place where he expired, on the 17th of August, 1785. The new palace and the marble palace are also in its vicinity.

dyed all over with numerous tints, green, orange, yellow, grey, and rose colour. The discovery of its wealth was made by an Indian, who, in hunting some goats, slipped, and, to save himself, took hold of a shrub, which, in coming away from the POUGHKEEPSIE, a town and river-port of ground, laid bare the silver at its root. The mines the U. States, co. New York, on the Hudson, 70 were first wrought systematically in 1545, from m. N. New York. Pop. 15,200 in 1860. The which time, till 1803, they are said to have pro-river-bank here is 200 ft. in height, but the town duced 1,095,500,000 piastres, or 237,358,3341. has five convenient landing-places. It occupies worth of silver on which duty was paid; and, about 1,800 acres, on which some 50 or 60 streets during the same period, they also produced a have been laid out, several of which are well large quantity of gold; at the same time that paved. Many of the stores in the main street great quantities of both metals were smuggled, or are equal to those of the Broadway in New York, put into circulation without payment of the duty. and numerous private houses exhibit both wealth About 5,000 openings are said to have been made and taste. There are numerous churches, a courtin the mountain; but the number of mines house, a gaol, a co. workhouse, an academy, and a wrought during the present century has rarely Lancastrian school, Poughkeepsie has a consiexceeded 100. At one time, the mines yielded derable trade, and communicates regularly, by about 30,000 ducats a day; and for a lengthened steam boats, with New York, Newbury, and other period they produced about 9,000,000 dollars a towns. It was founded by some Dutch families, year. But they had begun to decline long pre- in 1735, and incorporated in 1801. viously to the revolution; and since then they have been, whether from their exhaustion, defects in the mode of working, or the want of capital, nearly unproductive. The ore is pulverised in water-mills, worked with overshot wheels, at from 1 to 10 m. from the city; but, according to Helms, both the mining and reduction of the ore were conducted in the most bungling manner.

POTSDAM, a town of Prussia, prov. Brandenburg, cap. reg., at the confluence of the Rathe with the Havel, on an island formed by the two rivers, a canal and lakes, 17 m. SW. Berlin, on the railway from Berlin to Magdeburg. Pop. 41,824 in 1861, excl. of garrison of 6,955 men. Potsdam has been appropriately termed the Versailles of Prussia. It is a favourite royal residence; streets straight, broad, and well paved; and the houses, though frequently small, and not very commodious within, have, for the most part, splendid fronts. It is encompassed by walls and palisades; has numerous gates and bridges, some of which are highly ornamental; and is divided into three parts, the old and new towns, and Frederickstadt. The most remarkable edifices are, the palace, a magnificent structure on the Havel, having attached to it a theatre, a menagerie, and spacious stables; the church of the garrison, in which are deposited the remains of Frederick the Great; the church of St. Nicholas, and the great military orphan hospital. In the old market-place is an obelisk of red Silesian marble, 75 feet high, on a pedestal of white Italian marble; on the base are inscribed the names of the great elector and his successors. The barracks are very extensive, There is a lyceum, a military school, with various public schools of inferior note, and sundry literary establishments. There are also, exclusive of the military orphan hospital, mentioned above, an infirmary and workhouse. Potsdam was formerly more of a barrack than of a town; but for a good many years past it has been distinguished in various branches of manufacture, such as that of silk, hardware articles, and arms. Being situated on a navigable river, communicating by canals and railways with many large towns, and, with the Elbe and the Oder, it has a good deal of

commerce.

Potsdam is a very old town, having existed in the 8th century: it did not, however, become a place of any importance till the elector Frederick William selected it for a residence, and began the palace. It was materially improved by king Frederick William I., but, like Berlin, it owes it principal embellishments to the taste and liberality of Frederick the Great. In its environs is Sans Souci, the favourite residence

PRAGUE, a city of Bohemia, of which it is the cap., near the centre of the kingdom, on the Moldau, by which it is intersected, 73 m. SSE. Dresden, and 152 m. NE. Vienna, on the railway from Dresden to Vienna. Pop. 142,588 in 1857. The city stands in a basin, surrounded on all sides by rocks and eminences, upon the slopes of which the buildings rise tier after tier, as they recede from the water's edge; and few cities of Austria, or, indeed, of any country, have so grand and imposing an external appearance. It is divided into four quarters, of which two, the Altstadt and Neustadt, are on the right, and the others, the Kleinseite and Hradschin, on the left bank of the Moldau. The Altstadt, or most ancient part of the city, stretches along the margin of the river, and for a considerable distance up the ascending ground: it comprises the university and the archbishop's palace, the municipality, the principal churches and public edifices, the theatre, and all the superior shops. It is the district of commerce and general activity, and is crowded with a dense and active pop. Its streets are generally narrow, dark, and winding: the principal edifices massive and gloomy; and the private buildings, usually of stuccoed brick, are black with age and dirt, and so lofty as to exclude the light from the avenues between them; but, on the other hand, there is an air of antiquity, and a singularity of architecture about many of the edifices, public and private, that renders them at once venerable and interesting. The open places are often surrounded by low heavy arcades, beside which are the churches or public buildings, exhibiting a fantastic mixture of Gothic and Italian décorations; while at every turn the eye is met by some memorial of historical events. Beyond the Altstadt, surrounding it on three sides, and separated from it only by a large wide street termed the Graben, from its having been formerly the city ditch, is the Neustadt (new city), founded by the emperor Charles IV., the streets of which are much more open and spacious, and are generally rectangular. Here are the vast convents, hospitals, and other public buildings, which owed their magnificence to the Jesuits, but the houses are poor, and the inhabitants, chiefly mechanics, artisans, and traders of the lower class. At one extremity of the Neustadt, up the river, is the fortress and arsenal of the Wissehrad, erected on a bluff rock, and connected with the line of works which extends in a curve behind the old and new city, embracing them both, and descending to the river at each extremity. On the opposite bank of the Moldau, the surface of the ground is for a small space comparatively even,