families of languages. Examination of the roots of the words of the dialects, arranged in geographical order, shows that they merge into each other, and there is not nearly so much difference between the extremes of east and west as between those of north and south; the dialect spoken at Teté resembling closely that in Angola 1.”

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SICHUANA LANGUAGE.

1

"A bird's-eye view of the structure of the language is easily obtained by classifying the particles or signs of nouns, and by separating the roots or radicals from all their flexions and combinations with prefixes, suffixes, and other signs, whereby relation, determination, demonstration, reversion, causation, distribution, &c. &c., are expressed. Radical nouns and verbs are then seen to constitute the hard skeleton of the language, and these, in learning to speak it, are to be mastered by the exercise of the memory alone"."

Signs.

The elementary forms and flexions of the verbs and roots, and the numerous particles and signs, form a remarkable feature in this and all cognate dialects. These are the chief peculiarities in the structure of the language.

"Each of the signs has a determinate definite meaning, and admits of being classed with others into a few orders, and, when applied to the radicals, they impart thereto their distinctive meaning, and eliminate an almost infinite variety of shades of thought extremely interesting to the mind which can fairly grasp the wonderful peculiarity 3.

3 "

These particles are simple, have few exceptions, and are correctly and invariably employed by all classes. The great feature in them is, that they make up for what would 2 Analysis, &c. p. 4.

1 Travels, p. 339.

3 Ibid. p. 4...

be the confusion confounded of nouns, verbs, pronouns, and adverbs being used convertibly the one for the other.

The repetition of the signs of nouns gives precision to the sentence. These signs impart force and clearness to each member of a proposition, and prevent any mistake about the antecedent. By a single letter or syllable a recurrent allusion to a subject spoken of can be made, without such circumlocution as "The said defendant" "Said subject matter" used by our lawyers. The sign in Sichuana is employed in the same manner as the Greek article; but always comes after the noun. It certainly is strange to us to say "dog a" or "moon the" but so speak the Bechuanas; enca e for the one; and ñueri e for the other'.

These signs are arranged by Dr Livingstone into three classes which embrace all the nouns in the language; the following is a conspectus of these classes.

Particles o, eo, o.

3rd CLASS.

All nouns beginning with a, mo, b, mo, a, take o as the sign. Personal nouns on b, mo, take eo, and a supplemental,

Particles e, ba.

All nouns in a, mo form the plural by changing mo into me, and have e as their plural sign; b, mo, or personal nouns in mo, form the plural by changing mo into ba; foreign words do the same.

These particles or signs have no less than sixteen uses; in fact they perform the functions of numerous parts of speech, indeclinable in this language, but declinable in most others.

These uses are:

I. Sichuana nouns being indeclinable, these particles alone undergo the changes which express the oblique cases. Ex: tiho ea mothu, work of man; mothu oa tiho, man of work, &c.1

II. The first thing which strikes an European on opening a Sichuana book is the reduplication of the particles. The sign repeated twice is used exactly as o Ti in Greek, that which ; ὅτι πλεῖστον = ὅ τι τὸ πλεῖστον, “ that TI “ which the most." So in Sichuana tiho e e klolu, "work that which is great," &c. *

go

III. When connected with the substantive verb, or go na, to be, reduplication of the particle shews time past. Thus: sêlêmo se le monate summer is pleasant; selemo se le se le monate, summer was pleasant, &c.3

IV. The signs become pronouns to their respective classes of nouns by affixing the syllable na or ona.

V. They become demonstrative pronouns when furnished with the affix uo.

VI. Totality or universality is expressed in reference to any of the nouns of which these particles are the signs 3 Ibid. p. 13.

Analysis, p. 11.

2 Ibid. p. 11.

when the affix otle is applied to them, as Nama eotle, all flesh, &c.1

VII. The opposite of totality is expressed by the affix pe. The meaning approaches to "any" or "none," thus:ga gona epe, there is not any, &c.

VIII. Distance from the individual speaking is indicated by the affix le or la applied to the signs; as,—litlare tsēle, trees yonder, &c.

IX. Present locality of the speaker is expressed by the affix nu, applied to the signs enu, tsenu, gonu, yenu, lonu, senu, anu, onu, banu. These, however, seem mixed with those which take the affix cu, and express property of the person present.

X. General interrogation respecting nouns is expressed by beginning the sentence with a, and affixing añ (ang) to the Signs:-ean? what? &c. With verbs the ringing ñ is added: o rihileñ? he has done what? &c.2

=

XI. Distributive interrogation is expressed by affixing the particle he to the sign:-e, ehe, bo bohe, all signify which when a question is put respecting any noun, or class of nouns ;-nama ehe, which flesh, &c.

XII. The signs become distributive pronouns by affixing the termination ñue (ingwe);-e, eñue, &c. and answer to the English each; if reduplicated, every, and every other :-Khomu eñue, each ox, or one ox:

Khomu eñue le eñue, ox each and each, or

every ox.

XIII. Unity or integrity, or the idea of being alone, Móvos, solus, is expressed by the affix osi:-as e, eosi, &c. Ex. Mari aosi, blood alone, &c.

XIV. Intensity or ugliness with respect to any noun is expressed by the affix be to the Sign as bobe, &c. Ex. boshula bobe, wicked very; mothu eo mabe, man the ugly, 2 Ibid. p. 15.

1 Analysis, p. 14.

&c. Beauty is also expressed by iñtle, affixed to any sign. Ex. mothu o moiñtle, a beautiful person, &c.1

XV. Entity, or existence, is expressed by the affix oñ (ong), as eoñ, lioñ, &c. Ex. lilo cotle tse ri eoñ, things all that which exist, or all things in existence. Nonexistence is expressed by the ga, not, and eo. no one. Khomu gaeo, there is no ox.

Ex. gaeo,

XVI. Time when is expressed by the affix re, and ra, as ere, lire, &c. Ex. lore lo riha, when ye make, &c.

This account of the Signs, gives, to a great extent, a view of the structure of the language; hence remaining. remarks can be brief.

NOUNS.

"Many of these have their origin in the conjugations; the changes necessary to give them the substantive form being effected in the initial and terminal portions of the word, while the radical remains entire"."

Personal nouns are formed by prefixing mo, and changing the termination into i, thus riha, work; morihi, worker. Rera, to preach; moreri, a preacher, &c.3

All verbs having vocal initials, as a, i, o, u, e, é become nouns by changing the initial letter into k, and the terminal letter into o.

Ex. a, aka, to lie = kako, falsehood.

i, ila, to hate = kilo, hatred, &c.

Other nouns are formed from initial changes too numerous to mention here. Nouns and personal pronouns are formed from any part of the verb.

A neuter noun is formed by the prefix se, thus; rera, to preach; thero, a preaching; or serero, a sermon, &c.

Nouns derived from the causative conjunction form their terminations by sho. Ex. ya, eat; yela, eat for; yesa, cause to eat; seyo, food; seyelo, seyeso, something which one has been caused to eat, = poison3.

1 Analysis, p. 16.

4 Ibid. p. 31.

5 Ibid. p. 32.