bounds, and we find expressions of this faith which, though wearing the guise of reasoned conclusions, are hardly less foolish and childish than much of the theological optimism of the last century. In our own literature, there meets us an example of these extravagant anticipations in the writings of Priestley (to whom Condorcet acknowledges his indebtedness, as one of 'les plus illustres apôtres' of his doctrine), as for example, in the declaration that the end of the world 'will be glorious and paradisaical beyond what our imagination can now conceive.' Still greater is the simplicity of Godwin's faith in the future of mankind, though this faith wears the aspect of being an elaborately argued conclusion. Setting out from a few abstract principles, and ignoring the lessons of history, Godwin argues that all vice is error, and that all that is required to reform men, and to do away with the evils of life, is the enlightenment of reason. veritable source of misery is, then, not inborn corruption, as the theologians assert, but human ignorance forcibly sustained by the impostures of priests, &c. If only men throw off their shackles, and assert their perfect freedom of thought and action, there is reserved for them a dazzling future, in which there will be no war, no crimes, no government, no disease, anguish, melancholy, or resentment. Human life will be indefinitely extended through the growing power of mind over matter, and propagation and death will cease together.1

The

The disposition to seek an ideal of life, individual and

In connection with Godwin's principles the reader should study their later poetic embodiments in Shelley's 'Revolt of Islam,' &c. The idea of the noble destinies which await the human race when it is freed from oppression and superstition, radiates over Shelley's writings a light in which the dark elements of protestation and condemnation already spoken of become veiled and softened.

RECENT VIEWS OF PROGRESS.

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social, in the distant future has continued steadily to reassert itself, in spite of the practical failure of its first advocates. In Comtism the doctrine of historical progress received a new expression, while the social ideal set up as the goal of future endeavour differed essentially from that of Rousseau and his followers. Once more, through the new doctrine of evolution as expounded by Mr. Darwin, and especially by Mr. Herbert Spencer, the modern mind has grown habituated in anticipating an indefinite expansion of human capacity in the future. Finally, the social and political movements of our time point to the widely-spread belief in a new type of social structure in which many of the material evils of the existing order will disappear. Whatever the scientific value of the numerous works which plead for a re-adjustment of the industrial relations of society, it is indisputable that men of high intellectual power, and of wide practical knowledge, agree as to the glorious possibilities of such a transformation. In truth, this social aspiration may be said. to afford the one vital type of optimism of our age. We have now to confront it with a theory of life which denies not only the reality of happiness in the past and present, but also the possibility of its attainment in the future.

CHAPTER IV.

THE GERMAN PESSIMISTS: SCHOPENHAUER.

IN the various theories of life reviewed in the last chapter, we have met with several philosophic and theological ideas which conduct to a despairing view of present finite existence, but with none which necessitates the condemnation of all existence per se. On the contrary the general tendency of the various systems of thought has been to provide some satisfying and peaceful solution of the problem of life and the world. Thus far even reasoned pessimism has been restrained and tempered by the presence of consolatory, if not gladdening, reflections. In one system only, that of metaphysical Buddhism, we meet with a fore-shadowing of a doctrine which condemns existence in toto, as necessarily miserable.

The modern German pessimists far outstrip their predecessors in seeking to show that all existence as such is necessarily burthensome, baneful, and a thing to be deplored, thus connecting the evil of human life with a fundamental conception of the nature of things.

The founder of modern pessimism is Arthur Schopenhauer. Others, as we shall see, have built on the lines he laid down, altering, omitting, and adding, as to details, but

ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER.

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not touching the general plan. Let us turn, then, to this writer, and, in order the better to understand his writings, let us glance for a moment or two at the man himself.

The character and life of Arthur Schopenhauer have recently been presented to English readers by Miss Zimmern in a very interesting sketch, which draws its materials from the biographical contributions of Gwinner, Lindner, and Frauenstädt. There is consequently but little need of enlarging on the subject here. A few leading facts may be recalled, in order to furnish the reader with a rough mental image of the man.

Schopenhauer was born at Danzig in 1788. His ancestry was a remarkable one. Several members of his family, which was of Dutch extraction, appear to have distinguished themselves as men of commerce and citizens. Both his father and his mother were persons of character. The father, a rich merchant, was a man of some intellectual culture, holding clear and decided opinions on political subjects, and of so independent a spirit that Frederick the Great in vain sought to win him for a subject. The mother, again, was a woman of a vivacious spirit, and of refined tastes, who found her chief pleasure after her husband's death in the intellectual society of Weimar.

On the other hand, there seem to have been distinct traces of mental disease in the family. Arthur's grandmother, who bore her husband an idiotic son, herself became imbecile with advancing age. His father, too, was of a gloomy and moody temperament, and subject to violent outbursts of passion. Towards the close of his life, he manifested so excessive an anxiety about his affairs that he was supposed to be suffering from mental derangement; and his death, through a fall into the canal, was attributed by

rumour to suicide. As we shall presently see, some of these morbid characteristics were shared by the pessimist.

Early in life, Arthur accompanied his parents in their pretty extensive travels, which included England in their sweep. It was during this visit that he acquired some of his exact knowledge of English life, social and political, as well as the rudiments of his lasting taste for our literature. It was then, too, that he laid the foundations for his hearty dislike of many of the political and social aspects of our life. Like another pessimist, Heinrich Heine, Schopenhauer conceived a deep detestation of the narrowness and bigotry of the English mind. Of this sentiment he gives ample proof in his writings. He says in one place, It is time to send to England to meet the Reverends a missionary of reason, with the writings of Strauss in one hand, and the Critic of Kant in the other.'

Like Heine, too, in another particular, Schopenhauer essayed the life of a house of commerce at Hamburg, much to his disgust and weariness. His discontent grew so importunate that his widowed mother, who had now taken up her residence in Weimar, consented to his entering on the student life for which he ardently craved. His studies both at the gymnasium and at the University (in Göttingen and in Berlin) embraced a wide and varied field, including several branches of physical science as well as philosophy, jurisprudence, and history. In Berlin he heard Fichte and Schleiermacher. His linguistic capabilities were very considerable, and his private studies included many works of foreign literature, more especially English and French. Among his favourite authors may be mentioned Locke, Hume, Voltaire, Helvetius, Rochefoucauld, and Chamfort.