in breadth than the occiput; the forehead is plane, less gibbous than usual, and low. It only appears somewhat broad owing to the circumstance that the external orbital process of the os frontis being prominent, is joined below by a likewise projecting malar bone. The temporal fovea is amply developed, the depression being yet not very deep, and it is terminated on the anterior side by a strong posterior margin of the frontal process of the malar bone, externally by a rather strong zygomatic arch, under which the articular tuberculum is very prominent, a crest projecting on the posterior side, by which the zygomatic arch is continued above the external opening of the ear. Moreover the condyloid processes of the occipital bone are large and more prominent than in other skulls. The mastoid process on the other hand, in all the Esthonian skulls examined, is small and less rough, while Russian skulls have long and thick mastoid processes. Not more developed is the external occipital protuberance; nor in general are the impressions of the muscles very conspicuous on the occipital bone.

In the base of the skull nothing remarkable appears: the interior occipital protuberance is rather greater than usual ; the lineæ cruciatæ are strongly marked, and the transverse furrows deeper; while the ossa petrosa project much towards the cavity of the skull, and the os occipitale, where it forms the lower occipital foveæ, is less convex ; by this conformation the space which the cerebellum occupies is evidently narrowed. Nothing else is observable, except that the foveæ in the anterior part of the cranium appear to be somewhat more angular, and the jugular foramina somewhat greater than in other skulls.

The facial part, compared with the whole skull, is small, broad, and low. The breadth of the face is not produced so much by greater developement of the malar bone, which is the fact in Mongolian skulls, as rather by a greater eminence of the malar process of the upper maxillary bone. On this account the distance between the malar bones, compared with the breadth of the forehead, appears much greater than in Europeans in general. Hence the external orbital margins are spread further outward, and the distance between the orbital margins is greater, and the orbits themselves wider: therefore

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X

the malar process of the maxillary bone being thus prominent, it follows that the antrum maxillare is more spacious. In the same manner the sphenoidal sinuses are deeper than in German heads; even the cells of the ethmoid bone are greater; and the papyraceous lamina, which generally stands in a perpendicular direction, is in the Esthonians somewhat chambered, and projecting towards the orbit. The frontal sinuses are very large, which in the external aspect is indicated by a prominent glabella, and by projecting superciliary arches; connected with this greater developement of all the sinuses, is a more ample expansion of all the mucous membranes lining them.

The malar process of the upper maxillary bone being stronger than usual, and on the other hand the frontal process and the alveolar process of the same bone being shorter, the whole face, from the frontal suture of the nasal bones to the alveolar limbus, is less extended. This broad form of the face, with contracted length, displays its influence on the shape of the orbits, and gives to the skull of the Esthonians its most characteristic type, for the orbits are, in comparison with their breadth, low, and have transversely an oblong or an almost square shape. This appearance depends on the proportions already described of the superior maxillary bone, and so much the more affects the eyes, as the supra-orbital margin under a very convex superciliary arch, descends lower, and is of a form less curvated, while opposite to it the infra-orbital margin also makes a very prominent edge. From the anterior to the back part the orbit is deeper than in other skulls, and on account of the narrow entrance appears to be deeper than it really is.

The root of the nose is compressed and flat, and the nasal bones not much chambered out. The frontal process of the upper maxillary bone being shorter and the alveolar process lower, and at the same time the body of the upper maxillary bone less broad than usual, the space surrounded by the teeth is necessarily narrower. The incisor teeth of the upper jaw being turned obliquely forwards and rarely perpendicular, their alveolar edge passes gradually into the hard palate. The peculiar evolution of the organs which assist manducation, oc

casions differences even in the cranium, for the whole circuit. of the temporal fossa is more exactly defined, not only by the semicircular line of the os frontis, but also by a very prominent crest, above the opening of the ear, into which the zygomatic processes are continued behind. Moreover in almost all the Esthonian skulls the external pterygoid processes are very large. Often the spinous process of the sphenoidal bone is at the same time so prolonged, that it coalesces with the posterior margin of the former process. This conformation indicates a greater evolution of the external pterygoid muscle. The lateral motion of the lower jaw is thus increased; hence the crowns of the teeth are found very much worn in persons having greater than usual powers of mastication, and living on vegetable food. It only remains to be observed, that in the lower jaw, the ascending ramus is lower than in other skulls, the angle more obtuse, and the posterior part of the body of the jaw less broad and the anterior part higher, and the chin itself rounded and rarely angular.

These characters are discovered in various degrees in different individuals, but perceptibly exist in all the skulls of Esthonians at Dorpat.

It is very evident that this type of the human skull differs very considerably from that of the Mongolian. Dr. Hueck has pointed out the following particulars in which the difference chiefly consists. The Mongolian face is broader, the cheek-bones very strong, the malar fossa shallow, the nasal bones small and flat, teeth strong and straightly placed, surrounding a large space; the orbits are deep, less square. Oblique palpebral openings answer to the formation of the facial bones, for the internal orbital process of the frontal bone descends more deeply than in Esthonians and other Europeans, whence the lachrymal bone and the entrance. to the canal are lower down. The internal canthus being adjacent to this is placed lower; hence the obliquity of the rima of the lids.* We thus find nothing common to the Mongolian type and to the shape of the Esthonian skull, except a certain squareness of figure which is not constant.

* I doubt the correctness of this observation, and beg to refer to remarks, in a following chapter, on the obliquity of the eyes in Chinese and Japanese skulls.