III. Primum ergo dicimus, si belli causa injusta sit, etiamsi bellum solenni modo susceptum sit, injustos esse interna injustitia omnes actus qui inde nascuntur: ita ut qui scientes tales actus operantur, aut ad eos cooperantur, habendi sint 1 Cor. vi. 10. in eorum numero, qui ad regnum cœleste sine pœnitentia pervenire non possunt. Vera autem pœnitentia, si tempus et copia suppetat, omnino requirit, dut is, qui damnum dedit, sive interficiendo, sive res corrumpendo, sive prædas agendo, id ipsum resarciat. Ideo Deus negat grata sibi esse jejunia eorum qui non jure captos detinebant: et Ninivitis rex indicens justitium præcinit, ut rapina manus vacuefaciant, naturæ ductu agnoscens, sine tali restitutione pœnitentiam fictam et Lib. præcept. inanem fore. Atque ita videmus sentire 'non Judæos tantum et Christianos, sed et Mahumetistas.

Jon. iii. 8.

leg. præcept. jub. 16.

Silv. in verb. bell. p. 1.

12.

Covar. d. 11.

IV. Ad restitutionem autem tenentur, secundum ea quæ 1, 10, 11, et generaliter a nobis alibi explicata sunt, belli auctores, sive D. 8. et Less. potestatis jure, sive consilio, de his scilicet omnibus, quæ belii. 13. dub. 4 lum consequi solent: etiam de insolitis, si quid tale jusserunt aut suaserunt, aut cum impedire possent non impedierunt.

Adde l. 21.

§ 9. D. de Jurtis.

d Ut is, qui damnum dedit, sive interficiendo, sive res corrumpendo, sive prædas agendo, id ipsum resarciat] Num. v. 6, 7. Hieronymus ad Rusticum: nec differtur ultionis sententia, si non reddantur universa. [Nil ibi tale apud Hieronym.] Augustinus in epistola ad Macedonium, quæ est LIV. (Ep.

153. § 20. Edit. Benedictin.) Si res aliena, propter quam peccatum est, reddi possit, et non redditur, pœnitentia non agitur, sed simulatur. Retulit Gratianus in causam XIV. quæstione vi. c. 1.

e

Negat grata sibi esse jejunia eorum, qui non jure captos detinebant] Locus est illustris Esaiæ lviii. 5, 6, 7.

virtue, but the customs of states: and he speaks of the legitimate wrongs inflicted by the Romans.

III. First, then, we say, that if the cause of war be unjust, though the war be regular in manner, all acts thence arising are unjust, according to internal injustice. And all who operate knowingly in such acts, or co-operate, are in the number of those who cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven without repentance for their acts. Now repentance, if time and opportunity be granted, requires restitution. And therefore, God declares that the fastings of those who (Isaiah lviii. 6) do not unloose unjust bonds are not grateful to him. And (Jonah iii. 8) the king of Nineveh proclaimed a fast, that the people might ceaso from violence: acknowledging, by a natural impulse, that repentance was idle without such amendment. And such we find the judgment, not only of Christians and Jews, but of Mahomedans.

IV. The restitution is due, from the authors of the war, for all evils inflicted: and for anything unusual which they have done, or not

Sic et duces tenentur de his, quæ suo ductu facta sunt: et milites in solidum omnes, qui ad actum aliquem communem, puta urbis incendium, concurrerunt: in actibus dividuis pro damno quisque cujus ipse causa unica, aut certe inter causas fuit.

num. 10.

Vasq. Lib. i.

controv. ill.

9. n. 17.

Molin. disp.

ut vero.

V. 1 Neque admittendam putem exceptionem, quam nonnulli adferunt de his, qui aliis operam navant, si modo in silv. d. Loco ipsis aliquid hæreat 2culpæ: ad restitutionem enim sine dolo culpa sufficit. Sunt, qui videntur existimare res bello captas, etiamsi justa belli causa non adfuerit, reddendas non esse, eo quod bellantes inter se, cum bellum inierunt, ista capientibus donasse intelligantur. Sed nemo suum jactare temere præsumitur et bellum per se longe abest a contractuum natura. Ut vero pacati populi certi quid haberent quod sequerentur, nec bello implicarentur inviti, sufficiebat introductio externi, de quo diximus, dominii, quod cum interna obligatione restitutionis potest consistere. Atque id illi ipsi auctores videntur statuere in jure captivitatis personarum. Ideo Samnites apud Livium, res hostium in præda captas, quæ belli jure nostræ Lib. ix. 1.

habes eum græce apud Justinum Martyrem in colloquio cum Tryphone. (pag. 233. Ed. Sylburg.)

Non Judæos tantum] Vide canones pœnitentiales Mosis Maimonidæ cap. 11, § 2. Et Mosem de Kotzi præcepto jubente XVI.

• Mahumetistas] Vide Leunclavium

Turcicorum v. et XVII.

• Videtur heic deesse dolosæ, aut aliud simile: ut patet ex verbis sequentibus, sine dolo culpa sufficit. Non est in promtu SYLVESTER ille, ad cujus sententiam heic respicit Auctor noster. J. B.

prevented when they could. So the generals are responsible for what is done by their order; and the soldiers severally and jointly who have joined in any act; as the burning of a city: and in separable acts, each for what he did, or aided in doing.

V. 1 Nor do I conceive that the exception is to be admitted, of those who act for others, if they have committed any fault [with deceit, J. B.]; for to make restitution boproper, fault is enough without deceit. There are some who seem to think that things taken in war, even if there were no just cause of the war, are not to be restored, because the belligerents are understood to have given such things to the captors. But no one can be lightly presumed to set his property on a cast: and war of itself is far removed from the nature of a contract. And in order that neutral parties might have a clear rule to follow, and might not be involved in a war against their will, the introduction of that external ownership, of which we have spoken, was enough; which may consist with the internal obligation of restitution. So the Sam13

[GROT. III.]

videbantur, remisimus. Videbantur, ait, quia injustum id Lib. viii. 30. bellum fuerat, ut jam ante agnoverant Samnites.

Vide sup. ii. 12.

Vide sup.

ii. 10.

Lib. vi. 5.

2 Non dissimile est, quod ex contractu sine dolo inito, cui inest inæqualitas, jure gentium nascitur facultas quædam cogendi eum qui contraxit ad implenda pacta: nec eo tamen minus, qui plus æquo stipulatus est rem ad æqualitatem reducere ex probi ac pii hominis officio tenetur.

VI. 1 Sed et, qui damnum ipse non dedit, aut sine omni culpa dedit, sed rem bello injusto captam ab alio penes se habet, tenetur eam reddere, quia cur alter ea carere debeat nulla causa subest naturaliter justa, non consensus ipsius, non malum meritum, non compensatio. Non aliena ab hac re historia est apud Valerium Maximum: populus, inquit, Romanus cum P. Claudius Camerinos ductu atque auspiciis suis captos sub hasta vendidisset, etsi ærarium pecunia, fines agris

Conquisitos redemit, et prædia restituit] Antonius Tyrios coegit reddere, quæ Judæorum tenebant. Homines ab eis venditos jussit liberari, bona domi

nis reddi. Josephus XIV. Antiquæ Historiæ, (Cap. 12. § 5. divis. Hudson.) Macrinus Parthis reddidit captivos et prædam, quod causa non fuisset, cur

nites, in Livy, give up what they had taken; which, they say, seemed ours by the right of war: seemed, because the war was unjust, as the Samnites had confessed.

2 It is a case of the same kind, that an unequal contract, mado without deceit, gives, by the Law of Nations, a right of compelling the fulfilment of the compacts; and yet he who has the advantage, is bound by the duty of an honest and pious man, to reduce it to equality.

VI. 1 But also, he who has not caused any damage, or has caused it without any fault, but who has in his possession a thing taken in war from another, is bound to restore it, because there is no cause, naturally just, why the other should be deprived of it; not his consent; not his ill desert; not compensation. There is a story to

this effect in Valerius Maximus: When P. Claudius had taken and
sold the people of Camerina, although the money and the conquest were
very advantageous, the Roman people sought them out and redeemed them,
because the justice of the proceeding did not seem clear; and gave them a
dwelling in the Aventine, and restored their property. So, by a decree of
the Romans, the Phocenses had their liberty and land restored. So
the Ligurians who had been sold by M. Popilius, were redeemed and
restored to liberty, and their property given back.
So with regard
to the Abderites, the Senate decreed the same thing, adding the reason,
that the war had been unjust.

2 But he who holds such property, if he have spent anything upon it, may deduct as much as it was worth to the owner to recover

39.

auctos animadvertebat, tamen, quia parum liquida fide id gestum ab imperatore videbatur, maxima cura conquisitos redemit, iisque habitandi gratia locum in Aventino adsignavit, et prædia restituit. Similiter Phocensibus Romanorum Liv. xxxviii. decreto reddita libertas etiam illa publica et qui erepti erant agri. Et postea Ligures qui a M. Popillio venditi fuerant, reddito emtoribus pretio restituti sunt in libertatem, bona Liv. xlii. 8. quoque reddi curata. Idem de Abderitis decrevit senatus, addita causa quod injustum bellum illatum iis esset.

2 Poterit tamen, si quid sumtus aut operæ impendit is, qui rem tenet, deducere tantum, quantum domino valebat adipisci desperatam possessionem, secundum ea quæ alibi explicata sunt. Quod si rei possessor culpa exsors eam consumserit aut alienaverit, non tenebitur nisi in quantum censeri potest locupletior factus.

Romani pacem rumperent. Herodianus libro Iv. in fine. Mahumetes Turca liberari jussit eos, qui fuerant in oppido Sanctæ Mariæ in Achaia. Chalcocon

dylas libro IX.

Ligures] Vide Excerpta Peiresciana Diodori Siculi. (Pag. 298.)

Idem xliii. 6.

possession, as we have elsewhere explained. If the possessor have without fault consumed or alienated the thing, he is not bound, except so far as he is made richer.

[This and the succeeding chapters point out the Restraints which morality and religion impose on the exercise of Rights. That the exercise of rights will be restrained by morality and religion, whereever these prevail among men, is so obvious, that it does not need any large array of authorities to prove it: and the application of such views has, in some measure, modified the received usages of war among Christian nations. I shall, therefore, considerably abridge the illustrative matter in this part. Of the Laws of War so modified, see Elements of Morality, 1061, &c. W. W.]

Lucan. Phar.
i. 349.
Offic. i. 11.

CAPUT XI.

TEMPERAMENTUM CIRCA JUS INTERFICIENDI IN BELLO

JUSTO.

ED nec in bello justo admittendum est, quod dici

Omnia dat, qui justa negat.

Melius Cicero: Sunt quædam officia etiam adversus eos ser

Restraints as to the Right of killing in War.

I. 1 [We have been speaking of the restraints which the injustice of a war imposes;] but even in a just war, we are not to say