fore allow the uncommon magnanimity and delicacy of Ossian, "king of songs," to be no strong objections against the antiquity of his productions.

21. From what has been said, it plainly appears that the style of all languages must have been originally poetical; strongly tinctured with that enthusiasm, that descriptive metaphorical expression, and that magnanimity and delicacy, which distinguish poetry. (Art. 30. Mus.)

Obs. But these points will be further discussed when we come to treat" of the nature and origin of poetry."

22. As language, in its progress, began to grow more copious, it gradually lost that figurative style, which was its early character. (Art. 31. und 32.).

Illus. Proper and familiar names for every object, both sensible and moral, pushed out of discourse the use of circumlocutions. Style became more precise, and, of course, more simple, in proportion as society advanced in civilization, and reason subdued the imagination of mankind. The exercise of the understanding now rarely permitted that of the fancy; and frequent and extensive intercourse among mankind obliged them to signify their meaning to each other by clearness of style. In place of poets, philosophers became the instructors of men and in their reasonings on all different subjects, introduced that plainer and simpler style of composition, which, at this day, we call Prose.

CHAPTER IV.

OF THE PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE, AS RESPECTS THE ORDER AND ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN SENTENCES.

23. THE imagination and the understanding are the powers of the mind which chiefly influence the arrangement of words in sentences. The grammatical order is dictated by the understanding; the inverted order results from the prevalence of the imagination. (See the theory of Arrangement, Art. 24.)

Illus. 1. In the grammatical order of words, it is required that the agent or nominative shall first make its appearance; the agent is followed by the action or the verb; and the verb is succeeded by the subject or accusative, termed, in English Grammars, the objective case, on which the action is exerted. In this logical order, an Eng lish writer, paying a compliment to a great man, would say: "It is impossible for me to pass over in silence such remarkable mildness, such singular and unheard of clemency, and such unusual moderation, in the exercise of supreme power." Here we have first presented to us the person who speaks, "It is impossible for me;" next, what that

person is to do, "impossible for him to pass over in silence;" and, lastly, the object which moves him to do so, "the mildness, clemency, and moderation of a man in the exercise of supreme power."

2. The inverted order is prompted by the imagination, a keen and sprightly faculty, which attaches itself strongly to its objects, and to those the most that affect it most forcibly. A sentence constructed according to this faculty, presents the subject or accusative, first, the agent or recipient next, and the action or verb last. The order of the Latin language gratifies the rapidity of the imagination; and accordingly, Cicero, from whom we have translated the words in the former illustration, follows the natural order: "Tantam mansuetudinem, tam inusitatem inauditamque clementiam, tantumque in summa potestate rerum omnium modum, tacitus nullo modo præterire possum."* The object, that which was the exciting idea in the speaker's mind, is placed first, and the sentence concludes with the speak

er and his action.

3. The other parts of speech, consisting of adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions, are, in both these modes of arrangement, intermixed with these capital parts, and are associated with them respectively, according as they are necessary to restrict or explain them..

24. From these illustrations, the following simple and natural theory results, relative to the arrangement of words in sentences, unless their order be disturbed by considerations respecting melody and cadence, of which we shall hereafter take notice; that in all periods of society, and in all countries in which men are guided more by the influence of imagination, than by the cool dictates of reason, language adopts an inverted order or arrangement; but that inversion is diminished in proportion as imagination subsides, and reason gains the ascendant; and that among people addicted to research and philosophical investigation, it in a great measure disappears. (Art. 30. Illus.)

Obs. We have seen that the arrangement in a Latin sentence is the more animated; the English construction is more clear and distinct. The Romans generally arranged their words according to the order in which the ideas rose in the imagination; we marshal them according to the order in which the understanding directs those ideas to be exhibited, in succession, to the view of another.

Corol. Our arrangement, therefore, appears to be the consequence of greater refinement in the art of speech; as far as clearness in communication is understood to be the end of speech.

25. In the early periods of society, and even in the early part of life, we observe the mind disposed to inversion; because in these times the imagination is more vivid and active, and the powers of reason are more languid and ineffectual. (Art. 30.)

* Orat. pro Marcell.

Hlus. If a person of a warm imagination, a savage or a child, beheld an object, suppose any kind of fruit, as an acorn, which he was anxious to possess, and to obtain it, he were to express himself in the order prompted by the immediate feelings of his mind; the first thing that would excite his attention, and which, consequently, he would first name, is the acorn; himself, who was to enjoy the fruit, would next engage his attention; and the action-that which was to gratify his wishes-would finally attract his consideration. His arrangement would therefore be that, which, in similar cases, is authorized by the sprightly languages of Greece and Rome, "Báλavov μos dos," "Glandem mihi præbe;" not that which the more phlegmatic and philosophical tongues of modern Europe would require, and which the strict grammatical order of our own language demands-" Give me the acorn;" or "Give the acorn to me."

26. Though the vivacity of the genius of the Greeks and Romans, might incline them to prefer the poetical and inverted arrangement of their words, they owed, to the structure of their languages, the possibility of indulging this disposition.

Illus. The numerous inflections of their declinable parts of speech; the correspondence, for example, between the verb and its nominative, so obviously pointed out by the terminations of the former, as to supersede, in most cases, the necessity, and even the propriety, of using the latter; the palpable relation between the adjective and the substantive, indicated by the invariable agreement of the former with the latter, in gender, number, and cas; the various cases of their substantives, which, on many occasions, supplied the place of prepositions; all contributed to leave the Greeks and Romans at liberty to gratify their feelings, or to consult the melody of their periods, by the arrangement of their words in sentences, without incurring the risk of diminishing the perspicuity of their compositions.

27. The inflections of the modern languages are few, and preclude the arrangement which the tongues of antiquity found so much to the gratification of the imagination and of the ear. And hence the first rule of good writing or speaking, is, to preserve perspicuity, which on no account can be sacrificed to any secondary consideration.

Obs. This indispensable law demands, that the arrangement of modern languages, should proceed nearly in the grammatical order; because juxta-position is almost the only means by which they can intimate the mutual relation of the several words in a sentence to one another.

28. All the cultivated modern languages, the French, the Italian, the Spanish, the German, and the English,-are extremely circumscribed in point of inflection; but the English more than any of the rest. There is not, perhaps, to be found in any age, a polished language of greater simplicity, the Hebrew itself not excepted.

Illus. We have no genders but those of nature, the male and the female; our substantives have no more cases than two; and "only a few of our pronouns have three: our adjectives have neither gender, nor number, nor case; and all the inflections of our verbs, do not perhaps exceed half a dozen.

Obs. In point of precision and accuracy, our own language, in the hands of a writer of genius, appears to be superior to the Latin and equal to the Greek. The great end of language is to communicate thought with ease and expedition, for the improvement and happiness of human life; and, considering the importance of this communication, the language which is least liable to equivocation, is a most valuable acquisition. For the purposes of business, and the researches of philosophy, our own language merits every praise; and though inferior to the language of Greece and Rome, in works addressed to the imagination and the heart, it yields to neither of them, nor to any modern language, in its qualifications to do justice to the most sublime conceptions on the capital subjects of genius.

29. The prevalence of imagination and passion in the early stages of society, accounts also, satisfactorily, for the poetical inversions of style, which are found in these periods, and, of course, for the priority of poetry to prose compositions. (Art. 21. and 22.)

Illus. The attachment of love, gratitude to a deliverer, or to the gods, with whom the creed of infant society replenished the skies, admiration of the works of nature, in the splendour of summer, or the grandeur of winter, in the beauties of spring, or the abundance of autumn, would early prompt the sentiments and language of poetry. The invention of versification would quickly follow the possession of poetical ideas; and its apparent ingenuity would contribute to its recommendation. Though it is a more artificial mode of expression than prose, yet it is not to be doubted that it was first introduced; and the history of Homer's compositions, or the Poems of Ossian, induce a belief, that it preceded even writing. (Art. 23. Illus. 1. and 3. also Art. 33.)

30. Though poetry is the more artificial mode of composition, it is not perhaps the more difficult. Composition in prose could not be well executed, till writing was invented; and writing is a modern invention, in comparison of speaking. The appearance of good prose, is therefore posterior to that of good poetry; and excellence in the former, among the latest attainments of polished nations. Good poetry is perfectly consistent with no high degree of precision of thought, or accuracy of expression. (Art. 20. Cor.)

is

Illus. The period most favourable for poetical exertions, is situated between the decline of the general influence of the powers of imagination on society, and the general cultivation of the faculty of reason, by science and philosophy; it is then that the poet has the best chance of possessing the greatest compound quality of the powers of imagina~

tion and judgment he can ever attain. Such, it seems, were the periods which produced Homer, Virgil, and Milton. (Art. 22. Illus.)

CONCLUSION.

31. From what has been said in the preceding chapters, a foundation has been laid for many observations, both curious and useful. It appears, that language was, at first, barren in words, but descriptive by the sound of those - words; and expressive in the manner of uttering them, by the aid of significant tones and gestures. Style was figurative and poetical; arrangement was fanciful and lively. In all the successive changes which language has undergone, as the world advanced, the understanding has gained ground on the fancy and imagination. The progress of language in this respect, resembles the progress of age in The imagination is most vigorous and predominant in youth; with advancing years, the imagination cools, and the understanding ripens..

man.

32. Thus language, proceeding from sterility to copiousness, hath, at the same time, proceeded from vivacity to accuracy; from the fire of poetical enthusiasm, to the coolness of philosophical precision. Those characters of early language, descriptive sound, vehement tones and gestures, figurative style, and inverted arrangement, all hang together, have a mutual relation on each other; and have all gradually given place to arbitrary sounds, calm pronunciation, simple style, plain arrangement. Language is become, in modern times, more correct indeed, and accurate; but less striking and animated: in its ancient state, more favourable to poetry and oratory; in its present, more adapted to reason and philosophy.

CHAPTER V.

OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF WRITING.

333. NEXT to speech, WRITING is, beyond doubt, the most useful art which men possess. It is plainly an improvement upon spoken language, and therefore must have been posterior to it in order of time.

Illus. At first, men thought of nothing more than communicating their thoughts to one another, when present, by means of words, or sounds, which they uttered. Afterwards, they devised, by means of