town, and the air is healthy; everybody enjoys full liberty of conscience, and as guilds are yet unknown in this country everybody may freely gain his livelihood in an honest manner. Moreover, the poor Indian is already very contented in his lowly hut ; he makes scarcely any or no use at all of clothing, drinks only water, and eats, so to speak, nothing except bread of small maize (Arabic durra) and butter; he is, moreover, very laborious. Accordingly, it is not astonishing if a commercial town like that of Surat, where the laborious citizen is always working, and the merchant may always find goods, is very populous. The number of inhabitants is, nevertheless, not quite so large as is commonly believed. Even very respectable Europeans who have lived here for several years usually speak of a million when they are questioned about the population, but I fear that if a census of all the inhabitants were taken their number would be found to amount to scarcely one-third of that sum.

The altitude of the pole is, according to my observations, 21° 12′. The heat is here so great in the month of March that even during the coldest days of my sojourn in this town Fahrenheit's thermometer rose to 92°, and on the 29th of March, with a north wind, as high as 98 degrees; whereas in Bombay, which is situated 2° 16′ more to the south, it rises in the month of May to 93 degrees, as I have observed in Vol. I., p. 399..

I was not able to make observations on the tides, but according to trustworthy informants the highest tide at the new and full moon takes place in the port at two and in the town at four o'clock. The difference between the highest and the lowest water in the port is 18, and near the town 14 feet. The ebb lasts usually near the town three, and consequently the tide nine hours. The water of the river is, moreover, sweet here during eight, but somewhat brackish in the remaining four months. It is also said

The Areca, which grows nearly as high as the cocoanut tree, but is not so compact, is planted chiefly for its nuts (betel nuts), which, as is well known, the Indians are very fond of.

The Jack tree yields yellow wood, of which furniture is made, and bears an edible fruit.

Tamarind is used in the preparation of rice.

Bamboo is a well-known reed or cane.

that during the months of November, December, January and February, when the north winds blow stronger, the tide rises higher in the day than in the night by nearly five feet; whereas during the other months, when the south-west winds blow, it is six feet higher in the night than in the day. In the Gulf of Cambay the tide rises still higher than in the country of Surat. A merchant who had lived for some years in Cambay stated that at the time of new and full moon, and especially about the equinox, there were many vessels on the other side of the gulf, some of which are sailing in one and others in another direction; but the reason is probably only the tide, which precipitates itself with much violence into this gulf.

The Tapti is so full of sandbanks that during some years it becomes troublesome to float down the river the empty new vessels built at Surat. On the other hand, however, this river rises also during the rainy season sometimes so high that the water coming from the interior attains near the town suddenly the height of 28 feet, on which occasions also the sandbanks are usually carried off so well that a tolerably large vessel may sail up loaded as far as the town. If the Government were to confine this river within its boundaries by means of dikes, not only much excellent arable land at present submerged by the inundations would be reclaimed, but the river would likewise be disencumbered of sandbanks, and would thus become more suitable for navigation; but the interest taken by the Muhammadan Government in the welfare of its subjects does not extend so far.

[To be continued.]

HINDU MARRIAGE CEREMONIES IN GUJERAT.

Surat, May, 1880.

The Hindus consider it as the chief part of their duty to marry their children at an early age rather than to educate them thoroughly. There are different forms of marriage among Hindus, viz: Brahama, Daiva, Prajapatya, Arsha,

Asura, Gandharva and Paisha. Of these various forms all but two, the Brahama and the Asura are obsolete.

Manu treats the first four as the approved forms and the latter as the disapproved ones. The marriages are usually according to the mixed form of the Brahama and Asura Vivaha. Although the marriage customs are not the same in all the numerous castes and sects, still we can describe some which are common in form. Other minor customs are adopted by the ignorant class of people.

First of all the parents of the bride or the bridegroom call a Joshi (an astrologer) and give him horoscopes of both the bride and the bridegroom, with a view to know whether the stars of both of them agree. Few astrologers fail to answer in the affirmative, because it is said of men of that profession that they do not care a pin for the coming prosperity or adversity which may result to either the bride or bridegroom from the intended union, but their care is simply to fill their own purses. The parents of both then fix a day to celebrate the contract. For this purpose the parents, relations and others of the bridegroom's party go to the house of the bride and request her parents to give their daughter to them, saying that they would take care of her as their own child. Then the bride and the bridegroom are invited to dine by their respective fathers-in-law and are paid something according to the custom of their caste. They are invited to dine on some special occasions, such as holidays, &c., and are paid an anna (i. c. a penny halfpenny) on ordinary occasions and a rupee (i. e. two shillings) and clothes on some special ones. When a girl comes to the age of nine or twelve, her parents think of betrothing her or of marrying her. They fix a day of marriage and inform the parents of the bridegroom about a month or two before. Both the parties make preparations for the approaching marriage. They

repair and colour their houses and during the marriage festivals light them with different sorts of lamps and globes.. Some of the nobility erect large piazzas and "Welcome to the Visitors," "Long live the Bride and the Bridegroom," and such other expressions in vernacular and English character are written on arches in the front. The piazza is decorated by brilliant light, clocks, large glasses and globes. The seats generally are beautiful chairs or sofas. When a fortnight is left crowds of women assemble together and sing songs befitting the occasion at mornings and evening; but all the songs, with the exception of a few sung by females of high castes, such as Nagirs and Kayasths, are not sweet to the ear.

The Madava Muhrta is the special sign of marriage, which. takes place only two or three days previous. In this ceremony four or five married persons serve (nominally) the purpose of labourers. Although rich persons construct "mandavs" beforehand, the poor do that after this ceremony is over, as they have to erect them on a very small scale. They engage Dholics, a party of four or five, among whom two are drum beaters and others play on wind instruments. Both the parents of the bride and the bridegroom perform Graha Shanti, a ceremony to appease the planets. The reason of this and of consulting an astrologer before the contract takes place, and in short on every occasion, is that the Hindus are very superstitious. One thing which causes laughter and disgust is that both the bride and bridegroom colour their bodies with turmeric yellow. In order to have the colour fresh some apply daily. This is called the Pithi ceremony. Some even colour their teeth with red colour and apply it with so much care that the colour may last many years to come.

On the marriage day the parents undergo numerous minor ceremonies which are of little use, and therefore it is worthless to describe them here. The Brahmins celebrate the marriage

ceremony in the morning, but other Hindus generally in the evening. The bridegroom goes to the bride in procession. This procession is composed of children, either single or in pairs, dressed in the best clothes and adorned with different sorts of ornaments of pearls, diamonds and gold, preceded by a party of bandsmen. Next come the elite of the city on foot, followed by the bridegroom on a fine horse, which is also decorated in Indian fashion with a saddle or howdah. Last of all comes the female party, either on foot or in carriages.

The bridegroom, although a child of twelve or thirteen, puts on a turban of golden cloth in the fashion of his ancestors, attached with a fine Shirpecha, a costly robe of Kinkab and a fine native shoe. He puts on a number of ornaments on his neck, ears, hands, feet, &c. He has a red mark on his forehead and a black circular one in the middle of each of his cheeks. This latter sign is made in order that nobody can attack him by sight. He rides holding a cocoa-nut, a rupee, betel leaves and some betel nuts, with his hands folded. When the procession reaches the bride's house, the gentlemen who attended the procession receive cocoa-nuts, nosegays, &c. The bridegroom alights from the horse and stands near the entrance door of the Mandap. The mother-in-law, or some one in her place who is god-mother, comes in a rich dress and shows him some symbols, such as a trident, a yoke, an iron rod, &c., with a view to convince him that he will be treated by the intended bride as a slave. When this is over he gives the things he had in his hands to his mother-in-law and then he is allowed to sit in a múhirá, that is a small bower made of wood having four sticks at each end and a roof of bamboos above (which can hold two chairs only), in a rude chair. The bride is shortly brought there by her maternal uncle, and is made to sit in a chair of the same kind placed opposite to that of the bridegroom. They sit face to face and then the