recognized even by their own worshipers, | lights itself with the enchantments of gennot only as impotent to help and to comfort, ius. but even as powerless to inspire to the best achievements in art and literature.

The relations of modern literature to the Christian life are the most important of all. This, and this only, gives the supreme interest to Christian truth and Christian history. If this peculiar life can not justify itself as supremely excellent, neither the facts nor the history can stand before the searching scrutiny of modern criticism and the refined sensibility of modern culture. The opponents of Christianity understand this; and hence they would fain persuade themselves that what is distinctively Christian in the advancing moral and spiritual life of the race is so defective and evil that it must speedily be outgrown and laid aside. What

The antagonism of modern literature to Scientific Theology is, in part, a necessary form of the antagonism which must always exist between the stiff and arid terminology of the men of the schools and the free and flexible language of men of letters, which is also warm with the associations of common life. That this antagonism is in part unreasonable is too obvious to be insisted on; that it is in part excusable is equally clear. It will never be abated until theologians learn to distinguish between the metaphysical definitions and systems of theology, and even of Church symbols, on the one hand, and the vi-ever they may concede to this life in the tal truths of Christianity on the other; and men of letters can discern that the language of science, to whatever subject it is applied, must be exact and rigid; and that theology, so far as it is scientific, must be metaphysical. So long, also, as Christian preachers and writers are limited so much to the dialect of human creeds and systems, or to stereotyped phrases of any kind, and avail them-tures of the essayist are all largely used. selves so little of the popular and imaginative diction of literature and of common life, so long must they repel many whom they might convince and win.

past, they contend that better ideals have now been attained, and these are realized in better achievements. For the exhibition and enforcement of their judgments, literature is a convenient and effective instrument. The impersonations of the novelist and the poet, the analyses of the historian and the critic, and the satires and carica

These estimates of the Christian life respect its inner spirit and its outward manifestations. The inner manhood of the Christian is unselfish and unworldly, humble and prayerful It is encouraging to observe, meanwhile, on the one hand, and prudent, frugal, selfthat the themes of theology are to a large ex-respecting, and aggressive on the other. tent becoming the themes of literary discus- Both these aspects of the Christian spirit sion, if often with little reverence, yet gener- are misconceived and dishonored in literaally without a theological dialect. Prayer, ture. The first is scorned, as abject and unmoral recovery, and spiritual progress, the manly, and over against it is set the Stoic development of man in this life and the fu- ideal, which knows neither pity nor love in ture, are all stock themes in modern litera- their purest forms, which is too proud to ture. If literature is largely Antichristian, confess its human weaknesses and faults, it is, by the same rule, largely theological, and too disdainful to seek help in prayer. and it follows that theologians must become The sterner aspects of the Christian spirmen of literary breadth and culture. They it offend the Epicurean sensuousness that must be willing, and even forward, to enter is naturally fostered by literary refinement the arena of literary discussion, and on the and artistic culture. Each of these is so only terms on which they can gain a hearing. one-sided as to confute the other. Each is They must forego all special privileges, and so unnatural as to provoke a reaction. Both meet their antagonists simply as cultivated are reconciled in the equilibrium of the Chrismen, using the language which men of let-tian ideal, before which neither the Stoic nor ters employ. They must forego the lan- the Epicurean ideal can finally prevail. The guage of creeds and confessions, and define and defend the principles of Christian truth in language warm with familiar associations, and elevated by refined sentiment. They must be willing to take blows as well as to give them. They must respect the rules of courteous debate, and abstain from offensive personalities. In short, they must be accomplished as men of culture, and be will-erature. The more consummate is the fining to use culture in the exposition and ish of the mirror, the more distinct is the defense of Christian philosophy. The true image which it reflects. The slightest deevangelist will not only go out into the viation in its form may transform what prohighways and hedges, where vice and squal- fesses to be a faithful transcript into a gross or disgust and repel, but will enter also into and ludicrous caricature. If the Christian the high places, in which spiritual wicked- ideal is confessed to be the highest conceivness luxuriates in art and letters, and de-able, it is none the less easy to draw a con

man of culture who lives by faith in Christ will show himself superior to the man who lives by faith in Marcus Aurelius. The Sybarite must, sooner or later, show his selfishness, however refined.

The manifestations of the Christian spirit in the outward life are fertile themes for vivid if not exaggerated portraiture in lit

ed as never before by keen-sighted critics, who have the power of setting forth her defects with wit and grace, and with energy and sarcasm. Her foes can do her far more good than her flatterers. It would be well that she should listen to their sharpest sarcasm and their keenest gibes. It would not be amiss to inquire how these hostile critics view the littleness and meanness of the sectarian spirit which is forced everywhere upon their attention; what they think of the manifold ex

are equally impotent, whether enacted at St. Peter's or in the pulpit of a log chapel; of the dogmatism of our theologians, whether it be solemnly uttered in a professor's chair or fiercely shrieked at the fireside; of the fanaticism of our worship, whether it expends itself in the genuflections and prostrations of a ritualistic chapel or shouts itself into convulsions in a conventicle; of the equally offensive cant of the latitudinarian and the evangelical, and of all those overdoings and half-doings which, being neither thoroughly sincere nor thoroughly manly, can not be truly Christian. Do none of our so-called religious journals and newspapers give just occasion to these sharp observers to misjudge and misrepresent Christianity itself? Do the insinuations in which many abound, the injurious aspersions which they calumniously affix, the hollow platitudes to which they resort, and the commercial spirit in which they are managed represent the Christianity of our times, or do they more or less grossly misrepresent and dishonor it?

trast between what is proposed in aim and aspiration, and what is achieved in fact. The outward Christian life may also be imperfectly understood even by the most enlightened disciple. It encounters, by its own concessions, powerful antagonists within the hearts of the most single-minded and earnest. To a large extent, also, it is followed by those who are deficient in the knowledge and refinement which are essential to its most attractive and appropriate manifestation in manners and speech. Its intrinsic communications of our ecclesiastics, which spirituality and truth furnish no absolute security against hypocrisy. From the days of Lucian to the present, the real or supposed defects of Christian living have furnished ample material for the criticism and satire of literature. They are especially open to these at the present time. The resources of literature were never more abundant. Its readers were never more numerous and enlightened. The insight of both readers and writers was never more sagacious, and the susceptibilities of both were never more wakeful. Never was Antichristian literature, apparently, so sincere and conscientious even when it is the most caustic and contemptuous in its judgments. It ought not to occasion surprise that it should set forth in high relief the supposed or actual defects of the Christian life; that with its abundant material and resources it should produce powerful portraitures of the evils which it discerns, and exaggerated caricatures of the defects which it chooses to misrepresent; that writers of every variety should be active in this work, from the It is one thing to be able to show that lowest Bohemian, whose ribaldry is scarce- many of the hostile attacks and more effectly redeemed from vulgar abuse, to the most ive insinuations against the Christian living accomplished essayest or novelist, who him- of our day are unjust and unwarranted, and self scarcely knows whether his Antichris- altogether another to conclude that nothtian portraitures are written in sadness or ing is to be learned from them. It may be in scorn. The courteous decorum and the true that literature in all ages has deridrefined sympathies of St. Beuve did not save ed and belied the best of Christians. It may him from betraying his refined disdain of the be true, also, that with the decorum and misguided spirituality of those earnest phi- conscientiousness of some of the Antichristlosophers and saints whose history he wrote. ian literature of the times, it is essentially The intensely ethical Froude sets forth, in unfriendly, and therefore unjust in its judgbiting words, the bondage of modern Prot-ments. estantism to greed, and its craven subjection to the bold and insidious temptations of the times. George Eliot does homage to the Christian spirit in every feature except its personal love to a personal Christ, but emphasizes her hostility to actual Christianity, and her dishonor to the Master of our faith, in the portraits which she draws of Christians of every type, even of the most saintly. How sad and depressing are her representations, we all have felt. A kindly critic says of her most truly, "She is a melancholy teacher-melancholy, because skeptical; and her melancholy skepticism is too apt to degenerate into scorn" (The Spectator, June, 1872). The Christianity of to-day will be none the worse if she is mindful that she is watch

But it may not, therefore, be neglected or despised. Its discernment was never so keen, its weapons were never so sharp, and their thrusts were never more effective, whether made in sober earnest or the solemn and admonitory banter of a literary Mephistophiles. So far as it is earnest, so far does it demand of the believing Christian Church more simplicity of faith, more spirituality of aims, more upright Christian living in its homes, its neighborhoods, its commercial dealings, and its political activities. In the presence of such a Christian life as is conceivable under our human limitations, the most hostile literature would bow in silence, if it did not confess from the heart that Christ is in very deed present in a living and united Christendom.

RELATIONS OF THE SECULAR AND RELIGIOUS ELEMENTS IN POPULAR EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.

BY THE REV. JAMES H. RIGG, D.D.,

Principal of the Wesleyan Training College for Male Teachers, Westminster, London.

[Born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, January 16th, 1821.]

THE subject on which I have consented to | cation to be found in the world, except in address the Conference is one of the utmost Holland: there the secular system has been difficulty and delicacy, especially at the pres-established not a great many years. It is ent moment; and I feel as if I had to choose possible, however, that, while the public my steps over ground dangerously mined in schools of a nation may not be secular, but all directions, and to breathe an atmosphere may combine secular and religious instrucfull of questions and controversies. I shall tion, the state, in its oversight and aid, may endeavor, however, as far as possible, to es- concern itself exclusively with the methods cape controversies by giving little more than and results of secular instruction. In this a clear statement of facts, with here and there case, although the schools themselves may an intimation of opinions or a suggestion, on not be secular, the government stands in regrounds of pure induction, of practical con- lation only with the secular instruction; and clusions. I shall avoid what are called ab- thus refuses all concern or share or responsistract principles. Nothing is so easy as to bility in religious instruction. This is the dogmatize by announcing what pass for principle on which government deals in Enabstract propositions, and what sound like gland with all education given in day-schools plausible or even evident principles, and by founded and conducted, under given regudeducing from these a tissue of conclusions, lations, by religious denominations, by beon almost any side of a pressing and prac- nevolent associations, or by voluntary effort. tical controversy. But very little is gain- In these schools the government in England ed by high general arguments on practical simply ignores the religious element. questions, unless they are continually and throughout tested and illustrated by facts. Indeed, what men take to be an abstract principle is very seldom indeed a true abstraction. It is often little more than a working prejudice founded upon limited and ill-interpreted experience-at best a shell or envelope of words in which some principle is involved, which those who use the words have not learned truly to abstract and define.

My subject is announced as "Religious and Secular Education;" but the half hour at my disposal will not allow me to illustrate, even in my own practical fashion, more than a small part of the whole ground included under such a title. I shall, accordingly, deal almost exclusively with the "Relations of the Secular and Religious Elements in Popular Education." To the subject of University Education, in particular, I shall barely be able to advert. I shall, moreover, concern myself almost altogether with European aspects of the questions which come within view. Americans will draw their own conclusions, and will define and arrange for themselves their educational

economy.

There is no such thing as an organized and exclusive state system of secular edu

The only schools in England in which religious instruction is systematically and on principle paid for out of public funds-funds raised by levy on the householders-are the new School Board schools, in which general Christian instruction is given out of the Scriptures by the teacher, or some person (it may be, and sometimes is, a clergyman) appointed by the School Board. These schools are wholly built by rate, and their final or residuary charge lies continually and necessarily on the rates, a small portion only of the expense being provided for by the school-fees, and about one-third (at present) by the national exchequer, more or less, according to the secular results. The instruction given is called undenominational. The Roman Catholic, however, objects to it as to him sectarian, as anti-Catholic, as Protestant; while the rationalist, or skeptic, objects to it as inevitably dogmatic, more or less, and as almost inevitably, at all events as commonly, as for the most part, more or less evangelical.

The imperial taxation, however, is not applied to the payment and maintenance of these schools, so far as respects the religious instruction given. The imperial, the national, oversight, examination, and pecuniary aid, are limited altogether to the secular

methods and results of instruction, as in | 17th clauses of Mr. Forster's Education Act. the case of the voluntary or denominational The clauses relate to the education of the public schools. The local rates, the rates children of indigent parents. The 17th clause levied and raised within the borough or the gives School Boards the power to remit the school district, are charged with the whole fees in their own schools at their pleasure; responsibility of providing for the religious the 25th clause gives the power to pay the fees instruction in these schools. The School of indigent children at any public and inBoard and its funds stand in relation to spected elementary school to which they may School Board schools precisely as the Chris- be sent. School Board schools are not yet, and tian denomination or the voluntary benev- are not soon likely to be, available in all parts olent association stands in relation to the of England; very many parishes, many small schools founded by Christian Churches or towns, and even some large towns, are already voluntary associations. well supplied with efficient and inspected public elementary schools. The rate-payer sturdily objects to any attempt to set aside or ignore these schools, and at his expense to set up and maintain new schools. The parent objects to be obliged, if he happens to be very poor, to take away his child from what he regards as his own school.

The religious instruction given in the School Board schools usually includes a Bible lesson, singing, and prayer. Scarcely any Boards-very few indeed-have established secular schools in their districts. Perhaps there is no one principle, or motto, or rallying cry at this moment so potent and popular in England as "The Bible in the Schools."

A certain wing of the advanced liberal party has unquestionably lost credit both for itself, and, I fear, also for the principles of advanced liberalism in general, by being understood to oppose Bible lessons and Christian instruction in the public schools. This is one of the causes, there can be little doubt, of what is called the conservative reaction now proceeding in England.

In the case of the Roman Catholic parent this objection would be persistent and embittered. Under these circumstances, if in England universal compulsion was to be applied, or to be contemplated as possible and desirable, it was necessary to arrange for the payment of fees in other public-inspected schools as well as their remission in Board schools; which latter schools, indeed, if there were no Roman Catholic public schools, no Church of England public schools--if these and all voluntary denominational public schools were to be done away—would very soon become purely secular schools.

In many parts of your own States it becomes increasingly evident that the common schools must become purely secular; or else that special provision must be made for the Roman Catholics. In Canada, the price paid for the maintenance of common schools for the rest of the population is, that there be separate and special provision for the Roman Catholics. So in England, unless separate schools were allowed for the Roman Catholics, School Board schools would of necessity become secular. The Roman Catholic popu

In England, accordingly, the imperial government, the government from the national centre, proceeds virtually, in its organization | and administration of popular education, on the secular principle. On the other hand, the local School Boards teach, for the most part, a free and broad Protestant Christianity in their schools, using the Bible as the authoritative text-book. It seems to me that these School Boards have for their respective towns or school-districts set up a kind of supplementary and children's weekday church establishment, where Protestant Christianity is in a sense preached—that is, explained and applied, practically taught to children; and where, to some extent, com-lation could hardly be invited into a Protestmon worship is maintained. But then there ant common school. And into a secular is no territorial rooting, no "priesthood," no common school, though they might perhaps ministerial order, no real property endow-be invited without any manifest injustice, it ment.

In the case of reformatories, of industrial schools, and wherever the public necessities in the way of reclaiming or absolutely providing for children-the children of vice or of destitution-render boarding as well as schooling, and something like family life, necessary-it seems agreed by tacit consent that anti-denominational scruples must be set aside. Both the imperial revenue and the local rates are applied in contribution to denominational institutions, such as I have indicated, especially Roman Catholic reformatories and industrial schools.

You have probably heard something of a controversy in England about the 25th and

is certain that in England they could not be forced. Educational compulsion could not be applied, unless denominational as well as board schools were allowed to exist, and unless fees were paid in such schools for indigent children, as well as fees remitted in board schools.

In Holland, where the common schools are secular, this difficulty has rendered it impossible to apply a compulsory law. I may add here, on the authority of the Dutch Minister of Education, Baron Mackay, that the incidence of the secular system of schools on the Roman Catholic population in Holland, is eased by the fact that for the schools in Roman Catholic districts, of town or

country, Roman Catholic teachers are ap- of the children are in schools established pointed..

during the last sixty years, and worked by the Church of England; that the inspected schools-i. e., separate school departments

I have explained that the 25th and 17th clauses give to the School Boards the power to pay or remit fees. It is a question, how-belonging to the Church of England number ever, keenly debated in England, whether the School Board is a fit and proper body for investigating claims to poor-relief. Of course, the payment or remission of fees is only one form of poor-relief. All our political economists are of opinion that the Poor Law Guardians should have this work assigned to them, and that fees should only be paid or remitted on their authority.

nearly 8000; those of the Methodists about 1000; of the Roman Catholics about 500; those of the British and Foreign School Society (Protestant Undenominational) and of different Protestant Non-conformist congregations, excluding the Methodists—many of this class of schools having been transferred to School Board schools-about 900; and of School Board schools, making a very rough guess, perhaps 400 at present, built or transferred. The next three years, however, will probably see this last figure-the number of School Board schools-mount up to two or three thousand. I should myself like to see a British school (so called) or a School Board school brought within walking distance of every child of ten years old in the kingdom. But neither time nor place is suitable to-day for stating my reasons for such a wish; and, much as I might wish it, I have no expec

The Education Amendment Act, however, passed last session, has greatly lessened the difficulty and responsibility connected with this subject, so far as School Boards are concerned. That Amendment Act remits all cases of the children of out-door paupers, paupers residing out of the work-house or poor-house, and receiving out-door relief, to the poor Law Guardians for payment. These children now must needs go to school between the ages of five and thirteen, and the guardians must pay the fees, which, how-tation of seeing it accomplished within any ever, are not to exceed a fixed and moderate sum. Voluntary Benevolence on the one side, and the Poor Fund on the other, will leave but little margin, as I hope, for either pay-regulations, by whatever name it may be ment or remission of fees on the part of the School Boards.

assignable period. But within a very few years I have no doubt that a good inspected school, under strict and efficient national

called, will be available for all the childrẹn of our country. It will be seen from what I The conscience clause in the English Edu- have stated how strong the Church of Encation Act requires that religious instruction gland has made itself by its schools, what in all public elementary schools-i. e., schools an immense educational work it has done. inspected by government and receiving gov- These schools are now a most important part ernment aid whether such schools be of of its line of intrenchments. Having paid voluntary foundation or be School Board nearly or quite three-fourths of the cost of schools—shall only be given at a fixed hour building these schools, and having raised either preceding or following the appointed from year to year, by voluntary contribuhours of secular instruction. Within these tions, perhaps three-sevenths of the annual hours-the proper hours of state-recognized cost, and having thus furnished the country and secular instruction, viz., from 9.30 or 10 with three-fourths of its available supply A.M. to 4.30. P.M, excluding the dinner hour of popular elementary education, it holds a —no sort of religious instruction can be wide and mighty purchase upon the country. given. The managers are also strictly pro- When School Boards have done all that rehibited from using any influence to bring mains to be done, and the supply of schools the children to any church or connect them is fully equal to the demands of the counwith any congregation, or in favor of or try, it is probable that still two-thirds of the against any particular denomination; any school-provision of the country will be workviolation of these regulations would entailed by the Church of England. I simply state the forfeiture of the government graut.

facts. I do not comment on them. But they tell a full and various tale as to the past, the present, and the future, as to hopes, and fears, and heart-burnings, as to forces and controversies.

So much as to the relations between religious and secular instruction in our English public elementary schools. It is quite impossible at this transition stage to give, as to several important points, any but the most vague and general estimate of the statistics bearing upon the subject. It may be safely affirmed, indeed, that the number of public inspected school departments in England at this time can not fall much short of 11,000, i. e., boys', or girls', or mixed, or infants' sep-nations, corresponding very nearly to the soarate departments; that the number on the school-rolls is about 2,000,000, with an average attendance of 1,500,000; that three-fourths

Let me now turn to the much misunderstood question of Irish popular education. In round numbers, there are in Ireland 7000 so-called national schools; of these 5000 are non-vested, that is, schools owned and confessedly managed by the different denomi

called denominational schools of England, except that the power of the denominational element is stronger and less guarded, while