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millions, or 144 per head; 1845, 4000 millions, or £143 per head; 1865, 6000 millions, or £200 per head; 1875, 8500 millions, or £260 per head; and finally, the present figures of 10,000 millions, or £270 per head. There was in fact a steady increase, with the exception of the interval between 1812 and 1822, when there was a heavy fall of prices, and this increase, it was believed, represented almost all through a real increase in things, money prices at any rate being at a lower rate now than at the beginning of the century. There had also been a remarkable change all through in the proportions of different descriptions of property. Lands, at the commencement constitute about 60 per cent. of the total; at the beginning of the century they are still about 40 per cent. ; at the present time they are 17 per cent. only. Houses, on the other hand, are about 15 per cent. of the total at the beginning, and 19 per cent. at the present time, an increasing percentage of an ever-increasing total; but the main increase after all is in descriptions of property which are neither lands nor houses. After referring to the accumulations of capital in foreign countries, Mr. Giffen concluded by giving illustrations of the mode of using such figures, showing the difference of the burden of taxation and national debts in England, France, and the United States; the preponderance of England in the United Kingdom as compared with England, Scotland, and Ireland; the rapid growth of the United States in recent years as compared with the United Kingdom, and especially as compared with France (the national debt in the United States, from amounting twenty years ago to a sum equal to a fifth of the total property, having come to be only equal to a thirtieth of the property); and the small proportion of the annual savings of the country which comes into the public market for investment, as compared with the savings invested privately as they are made. In passing, a reference was made to the talk of the vast expenditure on military armaments, and the burden they impose on certain communities; and it was suggested that, heavy as the burdens are, yet the vast amount of property relatively indicated that the point of exhaustion was more remote than was commonly supposed. In conclusion, the hope was expressed that the discussion of recent years would lead in time to the production of better figures, especially with regard to the growth of different descriptions of property. Were trouble taken, results might be arrived at which would be of value to the Government practically, as well as to economists in their discussions. The progress of revenue was intimately connected with the progress of national resources, and the progress of money revenue with the progress of the money expression of those resources. The resources themselves, and the money values, must be studied by Chancellors of the Exchequer with almost equal anxiety, and they should both, at any rate, be studied together. Periodical complete valuations of property were in this view as indispensable as the census of population itself.

UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL.-The Sheridan Muspratt Chemical Scholarship, of the value of £50 per annum for two years, has been awarded to Mr. J. T. Conroy, who has been a student in the chemical laboratories during the past two years. Mr. Conroy has recently taken the degree of B. Sc., with honours in chemistry, at the University of London. The Scholarship, which is the gift of Mrs. Sheridan Muspratt, is intended to enable the holder to continue work in the higher branches of chemistry. The Sheridan Muspratt Exhibition of £25 has been awarded to Mr. A. Carey, of Widnes, who has been a student of the College during the last two and a half years, and is now in the final stage of preparation in the honours school of chemistry of Victoria University.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

Rendiconti del Reale Istituto Lombardo, November.-On the antidotes of the virus of tetanus, and on its prophylactic surgical treatment, by Prof. G. Sormani. In continuation of his previous paper on this subject, the author here describes some further experiments with alcohol, chloroform, and various preparations of camphor, chloral, and iodine. He finds that cam

phor and camphorated alcohol produce no effect on the vir and that chloroform and hydrated chloral have a more or le attenuating action, checking the development of the artisti cultivated microbe, or even in some cases rendering it absoletely sterile, while camphorated chloral has a decidedly neutrali effect on the virus. Other experiments show that when telan is once developed in the system iodoform is powerless to arres its progress, but is most efficacious in neutralizing the virus the injured part. The whole series of experiments fully cont firms the author's previous conclusion that iodoform is the specific disinfectant of the microbe of tetanus,

Bulletin de l'Académie Royale de Belgique, October 12Jupiter's north equatorial band, by M. F. Terby. The aut describes in detail the structure of this remarkable phenomer which he has been carefully studying for the last three years with a Grubb 8-inch telescope.-Determination of the invar. functions or forms comprising several series of variants, by M. Jacques Deruyts. In continuation of his previous communic tions, the author here extends to forms with several series ** variants the results already made known for forms with a of variables.-M. C. Vanlair describes the symptoms as treatment of a new case of bothriocephaly in Belgium, due the presence of Bothriocephalus latus in the patient.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
LONDON.

Royal Society, December 5, 1889.-" Researches on the Chemistry of the Camphoric Acids." By J. E. Marsh.

An account is given of some experiments leading to the ru duction, in any desired quantity, of a new camphoric acid, an to the mutual conversion of one acid into the other; as well :to a method of quantitatively separating the two acids whe mixed. The space at our disposal does not permit us to enter into any details of the experiments, nor into the theoretical considerations involved. For this, reference must be made to the original paper.

December 19, 1889.-" On the Steam Calorimeter." E! Joly, M.A. Communicated by G. F. Fitzgerald, F.K F.T.C.D.

The theory of the method of condensation has been previousis given by the author in the Proceedings of the Royal Society

vol. 41, p. 352.

Since the publication of that paper a much more extend knowledge of the capabilities of the method has been acquired, which has led to the construction of new forms of the apparatu, simple in construction and easily applied. Two of these sa described and illustrated, one of which is new in principle being a differential form of the calorimeter. The accuracy observation attained by this latter form is so considerable tha it has been found possible to estimate directly the specific hests of the gases at constant volume to a close degree of accuracy An error incidental to the use of the method arising from the radiation of the substance, when surrounded by steam, to he walls of the calorimeter, is inquired into. It is shown that affects the accuracy of the result to a very small degree, and capable of easy estimation and elimination.

Further confirmation of the accuracy of the method is affor in a comparison of experiments made in different forms of "% steam calorimeter.

Various tables of constants are given to facilitate the use of the method, and the results of experiments on the density saturated steam at atmospheric prés-ures, made directly in t calorimeter, are included. These are concordant with the deductions of Zeuner, based on Regnault's observations on the properties of steam, and were undertaken in the hope affording reliable data on which to calculate the displacement effect on the apparent weight of the substance transferred from air to steam.

The communication is intended to provide a full account of the mode of application of the steam calorimeter.

Royal Meteorological Society, December 18, 1889 –Dr. W. Marcet, F. R.S., President, in the chair.-The following papers were read:-Report of the Wind Force Comune the factor of the Kew pattern Robinson anemometer. The has been drawn up by Mr. W. H. Dines, who has made

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arge number of experiments with various anemometers on the whirling machine at Hersham. Twelve of these were made with the friction of the Kew anemometer artificially increased, ven with a variable velocity, and fourteen with the plane of the cups inclined at an angle to the direction of motion. In dis cassing the results the following points are taken into consideraton, viz. the possibility of the existence of induced eddies, the efect of the increased friction due to the centrifugal force and stopic action, and the action of the natural wind. The onclusion that the instrument is greatly affected by the variabilty of the wind to which it is exposed seems to be irresistible, and if so, the exact value of the factor must depend upon the ature of the wind as well as upon the mean velocity. There is evidence to show that during a gale the variations of velocity are sometimes of great extent and frequency, and there can be tattile doubt that in such a case the factor is less than 2:15. The one point which does seem clear is, that for anemometers of the Kew pattern the value 3 is far too high, and consequently hat the registered wind velocities are considerably in excess of the true amount.-On testing anemometers, by Mr. W. H. Dines The author describes the various methods employed in the testing of anemometers, points out the difficulties that have In he escantered, and explains how they can be overcome.the rainfall of the Riviera, by Mr. G. J. Symons, F. R.S. The aber has collected all the available information respecting fail this district, which is very scanty. He believes that the total annual fall along the Riviera from Cannes to San P is about 31 inches, and that any difference between the several towns has yet to be proved.-Report on the phenological observations for 1889, by Mr. E. Mawley. This is a discussion of observations on the flowering of plants, the appearance of insects, the song and nesting of birds, &c. Taken as whole, 1859 was an unusually gay and bountiful year.

Physical Society, Dec. 6, 1889.-Prof. Reinold, President, in the chair.-The following communications were read :-On the electrification of a steam jet, by Shelford Bidwell, F.R.S. Te author showed that the opacity of steam issuing from a de is greatly increased by bringing electrified points near it, that its colour is changed to orange-brown. Electrified balls andaks when placed in the steam produce similar effects, and when these are connected with an influence machine at work, decoloration of the jet rapidly responds to each spark. On amining the absorption spectrum of the unelectrified jet, little selective absorption was detected, but on electrification, the tolet disappeared, the blue and green were diminished, and the range and red remained unchanged. From these results the thor concludes that electrification causes an increase in the

of the water particles in the steam, from something small pared with the wave-length of light, to about 1/50000 of an ach in diameter. Allied phenomena with water jets have been erved by Lord Rayleigh, who found that a straggling water jet wdered much more coherent by bringing a rubbed stick of sealwax hear it. These observations are of considerable meteorogcal interest, for the steam jet phenomena go far towards exng the cause of the intense darkness of thunderclouds, and of the land yellow light with which that darkness is frequently pered. After making his experiments the author learnt that atalar observations had recently been made by the late Robert Helmholtz, who viewed the steam jets by reflected light against a dark background. On electrification the jets became much etter defined, and presented diffraction colours. Luminous ames also produced similar effects, and Mr. Bidwell has found that glowing touch paper is equally efficient. Helmholtz conectures that the sudden condensation may be due to molecular Tremors or shock imparted by the electrification upsetting the table equilibrium of the supersaturated vapour, just as a supersaturated saline solution is suddenly crystallized when disurbed. Another hypothesis suggests that condensation is caused ly the introduction of solid matter into the jet by the exciting rause, thus producing nuclei upon which the vapour may condense. On reading Helmholtz's paper, the author tried the efect of gas-flames on water jets, and found that when luminous They influenced the jet considerably, whereas non-luminous ames had no appreciable effect. He also found that luminous danes are positively electrified, and demonstrated this before the meeting. Prol. Rucker thought the surface tension of the films arrounding the water jets might be lowered by the presence of burning substance, and that the smoke from the touch paper und in some of the experiments on steam jets would introduce

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solid particles and facilitate condensation. Mr. Richardson in quired whether a red-hot iron had any effect. Dr. Fison said he had made experiments on the electrification of flame, and found that potentials varying from + 2 volts to 1 volts could be obtained in the region within and surrounding a Bunsen flame. Prof. S. P. Thompson commented on the contrast between Mr. Bidwell's experiments and those of Dr. Lodge on the dissipation of fogs by electricity, and also asked whether the colour of the jet depended on the length of the spark produced by the machine. Prof. Forbes thought a crucial test between the two hypotheses of Helmholtz could be obtained by trying the experiment in a germless globe. The President said he had recently noticed that gas flames were electrified. Mr. Bidwell in reply said he ought to have mentioned that the effect of flames on jets. may be due to dirt, for if soap or milk be added to the water in the steam generator, no effect is produced by electrification or flame. As to change of colour with spark-length, little (if any) variation is caused thereby. He had not tried whether a red-hot iron produced any effect on a steam jet.-Notes on geometrical optics, Part 2, by Prof. S. P. Thompson. Three notes were presented, the first of which dealt with the geometrical use of "focal circles" in problems relating to lenses and mirrors, and to single refracting surfaces. By 'focal circles" the author means the circles having the principal foci as centres, and whose radii are equal to the focal lengths. By their use the point conjugate to any point on the principal axis is readily determined. One construction for a mirror is to draw a tangent to the focal circle from a point P on the axis; the foot of the perpendicular to the axis drawn through the point of contact gives the point conjugate to P. When applied to a thin lens, a tangent is drawn as above to one focal circle, and the line joining the point of contact with the centre of the lens is produced to meet the other focal circle; a perpendicular to the axis from the remote point of intersection gives the conjugate point. Modifications applicable to thick lenses and single refracting surfaces were also given. In his second note the author treated similar problems by the aid of squares drawn on the principal focal distances, the constructions being remarkably simple, as will be seen from the figure, in

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which M, M, represent the principal planes of a thick lens, F1, F2, its principal foci, and P and Q are conjugate points. The line BC is drawn parallel to PA. In the third note, the paths of rays through prisms are determined by the aid of imaginary planes representing the apparent position of the plane bisecting the dihedral angle of the prism when viewed through its two faces. Just as in problems on thick lenses in which the part between the principal planes may be supposed removed, so when dealing with prisms, the part between the imaginary planes above referred to may be supposed non-existent. In another method of treatment, the apparent positions of points outside the prism when viewed from inside the prism are made use of, and their application to illustrate dispersion was pointed out. Mr. C. V. Boys asked whether the latter construction could be used to show why the slit of a spectroscope appears curved.─On the behaviour of steel under mechanical stress, by Mr. C. H. CarusWilson. This is an inquiry into the properties of steel as illustrated by the stress-strain curves given in automatic diagrams from testing machines, and by magnetic changes which take place during testing. After pointing out that the permanent elongation of a bar under longitudinal stress consists of a sliding combined with an increase of volume, the author showed that the "yield" is caused by the limit of elastic resistance (p) parallel to one particular direction in the bar (generally at 45° to the axis) being less than along any other direction. When this lower limit is reached, sliding takes place in this direction until the hardening of the bar caused thereby raises the limit of elastic resistance (in the direction referred to) to that of the rest of the bar, after which the stress must be increased to produce further permanent set. From considerations based on the stress

strain curves of the same material when hardened to different degrees by heating and immersion, &c., it was concluded that the increase of (p) during “yield" is the same for all the specimens, and that the "yield" is a measure of the "hardness." The question of discontinuity of the curves about the "yield point" was next discussed, and evidence to the contrary given by specimens which show conclusively that the yield does not take place simultaneously at all parts of the bar, but travels along the bar as a strain wave. In these specimens the load had been removed before the wave had traversed the whole length; and the line between the strained and unstrained portions could be easily recognized. As additional evidence of continuity, the close analogy between the stress-strain curves of steel of various degrees of hardness, and the isothermals of condensible gases at different temperatures when near their point of liquefaction, was pointed out; the apparent discontinuity in the latter probably being due to the change from gas to liquid taking place piecemeal throughout the substance (see Prof. J. Thomson, Proc. Roy. Soc., 71, No. 130). In seeking for an explanation of the hardening of steel by permanent strain, the author was led to believe this due to the displacement of the atoms within the molecules of the substance. To test this hypothesis, experiments on magnetization by stretching a bar in a magnetic field were made; these show that the magnetization increases with the stress up to the "yield point," and is wholly permanent when approaching that point. On comparing his results with Joule's experiments on the elongation of loaded wires produced by magnetization, the author infers that there are two kinds of elongation-firstly, that produced by relative motion of the molecules, and secondly, an elongation resulting from a straining of the molecules themselves. To this latter straining the hardening by permanent strain is attributed, and this view seems compatible with the results of Osmond's researches on the hardening of steel. Mr. F. C. Hawe's paper was postponed.

Mathematical Society, Dec. 12. 1889.-Mr. J. J. Walker, F. R. S., President, in the chair.-The following papers were read-On the radial vibrations of a cylindrical elastic shell, by A. B. Basset, F. R. S.-Note on the 51840 group, Dr. G. G. Morrice. The President then vacated the chair, which was taken by Mr. E. B. Elliott, Vice-President.-Complex multiplication moduli of elliptic functions for the determinants - 53 and - 61, by Prof. G. B. Mathews (communicated by Prof. Greenhill, F.R.S.).—On the flexure of an elastic plate, by Prof. H. Lamb, F.R.S.-Notes on a plane cubic and a conic, by R. A. Roberts (communicated by the Secretary).-Dr. Larmor and Mr. Curran Sharp made brief communications.

EDINBURGH.

Royal Society, December 16, 1889.-Sir Arthur Mitchell, Vice-President, in the chair.-Dr. Thomas Muir read a note on Cayley's demonstration of Pascal's theorem. He has succeeded in simplifying the proof. Dr. Muir also read a paper on selfconjugate permutations, and one on a rapidly converging series for the extraction of the square root.-Prof. Tait read a note on some quaternion integrals, and also a note on the glissette of a hyperbola. When a given ellipse slides on rectangular axes, any point in its plane traces out a definite curve, and the same curve can be similarly obtained as the trace of a definite point in the plane of a certain hyperbola sliding between axes in general inclined to the former.-Dr. Woodhead communicated a paper, written by Dr. Herbert Ashdown, on certain substances, formed in the urine, which reduce the oxide of copper upon boiling in the presence of an alkali. Dr. Ashdown was led to search for these substances in the human subject as the result of observations made upon lower animals.-Dr. G. E. Cartwright Wood discussed enzyme action in the lower organisms. -Dr. Woodhead communicated a paper, by Mr. Frank E. Beddard, on the structure of a genus of Oligochata belonging to the Limnicoline section.

PARIS.

Academy of Sciences, December 16, 1889.-M. Hermite in the chair.-Note on the eclipse of December 22, by M. J. Janssen. The arrangements are described which were made at the Observatory of Meudon for observing this event.On the effects of a new hydraulic engine used for irrigation purposes, by M. Anatole de Caligny. The general disposition of this apparatus was fully described in the Comptes rendus, Novem ber 19, 1887. The present note has reference to an improve

ment introduced for the purpose of remedying a serious defe. in the original design. It has now the advantage of giving good results as any of the systems in general use, while soten to them in simplicity and economy.-On the production of him. of ice on the surface of the alburnum of certain species of plant by M. D. Clos. Early in December, after a hard frost, w the glass fell to 6° C. at night, Verbesina virginita, Hezex thus orgyalis, and several other plants exhibited the same pie nomenon of glaciation at the Toulouse Botanical Garden & was observed and described by Dunal at Montpellier in 1845 An explanation is here given of the phenomenon, which occured on a much larger scale on the present than on the previous occasion.-Observations of Borrelly's new comet ( 1889), mu at the Paris Observatory with the equatorial of the west tos, by M. G. Bigourdan. The observations were taken on Deer ber 15, when the comet presented the appearance of a netuk indistinctly round, of 2' diameter, slightly more brilliant in he central region, but without notable condensation. In its exp were clearly visible two stellar points, and the presence several others suspected.-On the series Σ, by M

André Markoff. From the nature of these series the auth establishes a formula which yields the equation

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correct to 20 decimals. M. Markoff's paper forms a sequel t Stirling's memoir "De Summatione et Interpolatione Serieram Infinitarum."-On magnetic potential energy and the measur mechanical action of magnets on isotropous substances da ment of the coefficients of magnetization, by M. Gouy. TE magnetic or feebly magnetic isotropous bodies, has often beru utilized for measuring or comparing the coefficients of magnet tion assumed to be constants. On this hypothesis has be established the expression of the potential energy which serves to calculate the mechanical action in question. Here M. Ge proposes to supply a somewhat more complete theory by regarding these coefficients, not as constants, but as variable with the magnetizing force, and utilizing the experimental data for measuring the variations.-On the colour and spectrum of fluorine, by M. Henri Moissan. The colour of fluorine as her determined is a greenish-yellow, much fainter than that ul chlorine under like conditions, and inclining more to the yellow tint. Thirteen rays have been determined in the red region al the spectrum. With hydrofluoric acid several bands have he obtained in the yellow and violet, but very wide and not b ciently distinct to fix their position with accuracy.—Action (4 ammonia on the combinations of the cyanide with the chlories of mercury, by M. Raoul Varet. The paper deals severally with the action of ammonia on the cyanochloride of mercury. the action of absolute ammoniacal alcohol; the action ammoniac gas; the cyanochloride of mercury and zinc; anithe cyanochloride of mercury and copper.-On an adulteration the essence of French turpentine, by M. A. Aignan. fraud, which consists in the addition of a small quantity of the oil of resin, is not easily detected, but may be discovered t studying the rotatory power of the liquid, as is here shownsolidification of the chlorides of tin and arsenic, and on their Papers were submitted by M. Besson, on the temperature of faculty of absorbing chlorine at a low temperature; by M. Seyewitz, on the synthesis of dioxidiphenylamine and of a res method of colouring photographic proofs with the salts of silver, brown colouring substance; by M. Pierre Mercier, on a geners platinum, and the metals of the platinum group; and by MM G. Pouchet and Biétrix, on the egg and first development of the alose, a fish allied to the sardine.

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December 23.-M. Hermite in the chair.-On the discovery of a fossil ape, by M. Albert Gaudry. On presenting to Academy the skull of an ape recently discovered by [ Donnezan at Serrat d'en Vaquer, M. Gaudry remarked the except those from Pikermi in Greece, these are the only remains of a fossil Simian hitherto brought to light. Masy other fossils have been found in the same place, which evident contains large accumulations, especially of extinct vertebr animals.-Observations of the comet discovered by M. Horrely at the Observatory of Marseilles, on December 12, by M. Stephan. The observations are for December 12, 13, and 14 during which period the comet steadily increased in brightness and assumed more distinct outlines. On the 12th it was

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-cured for a few minutes by a star of the tenth or eleventh tude.-Determination of the difference of longitude been Pans and Leyden, by M. Bassot. This international ration, executed by MM. Van de Sande Bakhuyzen and bascot, presents a special geodetic interest, Leyden being the orthernmost station of the meridian of Sedan which now passes hgh Belgium far into the Netherlands. From the observant the difference of longitude between Paris and Leyden rears to be Sm. 35'6025., with probable error 0011s., ch, reduced to the official meridians, gives 8m. 35 213s.On the degree of accuracy attained by thermometers in the Lurement of temperatures, by M. Ch. Ed. Guillaume. On resenting to the Academy his "Traité pratique de la Thermoe're de precision," the author took occasion to reply to M. Penon's recent remarks on the accuracy of the mercury therneter Reviewing the whole question, and comparing the nions and experiences of the most distinguished physicists ring late years, M. Guillaume considers it placed beyond Job that mercury thermometers with glass of varying qualities veil varying results. But these differences, formerly supposed fortuitous, are now known to be systematic, so that any aber of instruments giving identical results may be constructed y a judicious selection of glass and careful manipulation. -ninosite, by M. Maquenne. In a previous note mpt: rentus, vol. cix. p. 812) the author showed that cute may be decomposed into a molecule of methyl iodide and Dolezale of a new sugar called by him B-inosite. The analysis f these two bodies leading to identical results, he inferred that Many were womerons, presenting relations of the same order as existing between the two known hexachlorides of benzine. This hypothesis has been fully confirmed by his further study of -use, communicated in the present memoir.-On a new dst of diacetones, by MM. A. Béhal and V. Auger. The thor have already shown that the chlorides of malonyl, bylmalonyl, and ethylmalonyl react on the aromatic caras piebling diacetones, B,R-CO—CHX-CO—R. They se also determined the formation of compounds having the adenstic property of yielding with the alkalies and alkaline carnates blood-red solutions. A further series of researches ta now enabled them to prepare several of these compounds in quantities, and thus study their constitution as here dened. The best results were yielded by metaxylene and the one of ethylmalonyl.-Optical properties of the polychroic relas present in certain minerals, by M. A. Michel Lévy. canous phenomenon is traced mainly to the presence of all crystals of zircon widely disseminated throughout granitic other rocks. In some cases it may also be due to the of umortierite and allanite These aureolas offer an ug example of a simultaneous modification of birefraction polychroism, a modification, however, which is not peracht or at least which may disappear, without involving any gem the properties of the mineral itself.-Analysis of the meteorite, by M. Stanislas Meunier. This meteorite, fell on June 9, 1889, at Mighei, in Russia, yielded bee the usual constituents, a new element, which M. Meunier ot yet succeeded in identifying.-Papers were contributed M. Y. Wada, on the earthquake of July 28 at Kiushu Island, by M. Ch. Contejean, on the circulation of the blood in mals at the moment of birth; by M. Ferré, on the semeioand pathologic study of rabies; and by Messrs. Woodhead Cartwright Wood, on the antidotic action exercised by peyamic liquids on the development of the anthracite

BERLIN.

Meteorological Society, Dec. 3, 1889.-Dr. Vettin, Presiin the chair. -Dr. Kremser spoke on the frequency of currence of mist, a subject whose investigation he had recently dertaken. Up to the present time the material derived from Pervation is extremely scanty, as shown by the extremely gent mean values obtained for different places in close idity to each other, as, for instance, Hamburg and Altona, even different parts of the one city, Berlin. It seems scarcely able to attribute the differences to local conditions in all for the mean annual values resulting from the observations duterent observers in one and the same place show an equally rking discordancy. This is undoubtedly due to the want of Sable units for estimating and measuring mists. From the e it follows that it is impossible to determine any secular anges on the basis of existing observations, although the yearly

variations may be. By comparisons based on a long series of observations, it appeared that a series extending over ten years suffices to give a reliable monthly mean. From this it appears

that at most stations the maximal amount of mist occurs in the months of November and December, the maximum occurring in November in the eastern provinces of Prussia, and falling progressively later the further the stations lie towards the west. On the coasts of the North Sea and on the adjacent islands the maximum is observed in January, while it occurs on mountains as early as September and October. At the latter stations the minimum is met with as early as May, and is progressively later (June and July) at the other stations according to the lateness of the maximum. On the islands, as, for instance, Heligoland, the minimum does not occur before September or October. As a general rule, 70 per cent. falls in autumnand winter, 20 per cent. in spring, and 10 per cent. in summer. The amplitude of the yearly differences is greatest on the plains and least on mountains. The number of days on which mist occurs is greatest at mountain stations, amounting on the average to 200 per annum, falling in the low lands to as few as 40 or less. The material at hand for determining the variations in the amount of mist per diem was extremely scanty; still it was possible to make out that, in winter, mist is most frequent in the morning, diminishing considerably towards midday, and being in the evening at times as frequent as at midday, at times somewhat more frequent. In summer, mist is observed only in the morning, and then disappears completely. In the discussion which followed the above communication it was pointed out how essential it is to distinguish between clouds and mist, as also many other factors, such as the frequency of purely local mists, the absence of wind, the difficulty of determining the density of mists, the differences of altitude, &c.-Dr. Sprung spoke on some new self-recording apparatus of various kinds made by Richard of Paris, and described fully his actinometer and anemocinometer.

Physical Society, Dec. 6, 1889.-Prof. Kundt, President, in the chair.-Prof. Planck spoke on the development of electricity and heat in dilute electrolytic solutions. From the experiments of Kohlrausch and Hittorf, and the theoretical considerations of Van t' Hoff, Arrhenius, and Nernst, all that takes place in dilute electrolytic solutions during the passage of a current is very accurately known, especially in the cases where the solution is very dilute and the electrolyte is very uniformly distributed in it. It has become possible to subject the occurrences in electrolytic solutions to mathematical investigation, owing to the existing conceptions of the osmotic pressure in such solutions, of the more or less complete dissociation of the electrolyte when in dilute solution, of the applicability of the gaseous laws to such solutions, and owing to the experimental determination of the rate at which the ions travel. The speaker had submitted the general case, in which the solution is not quite uniform, to a mathematical analysis, and deduced the formulæ which represent that which is taking place in each unit of volume of the highly diluted solutions in which dissociation is complete. These formulæ correspond exactly to those arrived at by Nernst for the development of electricity. Up to the present time the thermal phenomena in dilute electrolytic solutions have not been fully dealt with. The speaker showed that heat is the most important form of energy existing in the solution. It is only possible to arrive at a complete understanding of the heat production if, when drawing parallels between dilute solutions and gases, a further step is taken, and it is assumed that just as gases become warmer by compression and colder by a fall of pressure, so also heat is developed in electrolytic solutions when the ions are increased in number, and disappears when they are diminished per unit of volume. Hence the mere diffusive processes in an electrolytic solution whose composition is not uniform must develop an osmotic heat, which makes its appearance, and can be calculated in the absence of any electrical current. This osmotic heat must be taken into account, along with the two already known sources of heat production, during the passage of an electric current through a solution, before it is possible to calculate all the relationships of energy in a dilute, nonuniform, electrolytic solution during the passage of a current through it.-The President exhibited the air-pump constructed by Otto von Guericke in 1675, which had recently been acquired by the Physical Society. This pump is still in a thoroughly workable condition, with the exception of the glass vessel, which has been renewed. The pressure in this receiver could be reduced to 20 mm. of mercury, by means of the pump. The

celebrated Magdeburg hemispheres have also come into the possession of the Society, and were exhibited at the same time; they are perfect except in the want of the leather packing.

AMSTERDAM.

Royal Academy of Sciences, November 30, 1889.-Dr. Hoek read a paper on the Zuyder Zee herring, showing that it belongs to a race of spring herrings (herrings spawning in spring) closely related to the spring herrings of the Baltic, as described by Heincke. But whereas, in the Baltic, two races of herrings

an autumn or winter herring, and a spring herring-can be distinguished, all the herrings which enter the Zuyder Zee-both those which enter it in autumn and those which are caught in spring-belong to one variety: they all spawn in the spring months only; they are reproduced only in water that is rather brackish (nearly fresh); and their fry is very small in comparison with that of open-sea herrings. Considering that the Zuyder Zee herring is a variety which has sprung from the open North Sea herring, it furnishes a striking instance of the formation of a variety under changed conditions in the course of a few centuries.-Prof. van de Sanden Bakhuyzen gave an account of the meeting of the Committee for the Construction of the Photographic Map of the Heavens, held at Paris in September last, and spoke about the share of the Dutch astronomers in that undertaking.

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BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVED. Challenger Report: Physics and Chemistry, vol. ii. (Eyre and Spe woode).-Manuel de l'Analyse des Vins; E. Barillot (Paris, Gauthier Vilt) -Traité de Photographie par les Procédés Pelliculaires, tome prea second: G. Balagny (Paris, Gauthier-Villars) -Leçons sur la T Mathématique de l'Electricité: J. Bertrand (Paris, Gauthier-Villan Sundevall's Tentamen, translated by F. Nicholson (Porter).-The News Eggs of Indian Birds, vol. i., 2nd edition: A. O Hume, edited by E W Oates (Porter).-The Cosmic Law of Thermal Repulsion (New Ye Wiley)-Old Age: Dr. G. H. Humphry (Cambridge, Macmillan a Bowes). A Hand-book of Quantitative Analysis: J. Mills and & X (Chapman and Hall).-Alternate Elementary Physics: J. Mills (Cha," and Hall).-Solutions to the Questions set at the May Examinations of the Science and Art Department, 1881 to 1986; Pure Mathematics, Stagestan 2: T. T. Rankin (Chapman and Hall) - Perspective Charts for Use int teaching: H. A. James (Chapman and Hall).-Theoretische Mes Starrer Systeme: Sir R. S. Ball, herausgeben von H Gravelius (-Reimer).-Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria, decade xix.: F. Me (Trübner) The Garden's Story, 2nd edition: G. H. Ellwanger (Appi: New Light from Old Eclipses: W. M. Page (St. Louist-A Tr through the Eastern Caucasus: Hon. John Abercromby (Stanfor A Manual of Paleontology, 2 vols., 3rd edition: H. A. Nicholson aru k Lydekker (Blackwood).-A Thousand Miles on an Elephant in the s States: H. S. Hallett (Blackwood).-Descriptions of Eight New Specie Fossils, &c.: J. F. Whiteaves (Montreal).-Victoria Water Supply, T.: Annual General Report (Melbourne). - Studies from the Biological La tory, Johns Hopkins University. vol 4, No. 5 (Baltimore).—Journal of ** Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 58, Part 2, Nos. 1 and 2 (Calcutta) — 1 of the Anthropological Institute, November 1889 (Trübner) —Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, December (Williams and Norgate) -P ceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, 1889, vol. 6, Part 5 (Bris -Zahl und Vertheilung der Markhaltigen Fasern im Froschräcknin No. 9 (Leipzig, Hirzet).- Notes from the Leyden Museum, vols. N (Leyden, Brill).-The Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, Decem (Churchill).

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