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THURSDAY, JANUARY 23, 1890.

THE FUTURE INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE
EXAMINATIONS.

THE
HE importance of obtaining a satisfactory posi-
tion for future science candidates in these ex-
aminations is now very great. We have not only to
consider the need there is that the men selected should
represent every side of modern thought and culture, but
also to bear in mind the influence of such examina-
tions on the development of education at home. It is
infortunately notorious that candidates offering science in
the examinations conducted by the Civil Service Com-
mission stand, as a rule, at a great disadvantage. The
marks allotted to science subjects have often been rela-
tively small, and even when outside pressure has secured
the allotment of a fair proportion of marks to science, the
methods adopted in conducting the examinations have,
as has been pointed out in our columns and elsewhere,
frequently been such as to prevent good candidates from
ctually obtaining an equitable proportion of them.

Now as the Commissioners, year by year, deal with thousands, we might say with tens of thousands, of candidates of various types and ages; and as their influence is by no means confined to the actual candidates examined, ** is plain that we have in this organization a body whose influence, for good or ill, on education in this country enormous. Therefore we regard it as most urgent that those who are familiar with this question should press the facts of the present case not only on the attention of the Civil Service Commission, but also at the India Office and on the notice of the public. We are happy to know, indeed, that the subject is being energetically taken up by autmber of distinguished graduates of Cambridge. But the forces on the other side are very strong, and past experience of the action of the Commission has made it pain that the representatives of science have a serious task before them.

In their Report for 1888, the Commissioners have been at some pains to convince the public that their examinations have had a minimum disturbing effect on the dinary course of education. For example, they show hat at several recent examinations for Class I. clerkships in the home services, all, or nearly all, the successful candidates have been men of University education. The Commissioners should carry their investigations somewhat deeper, and ascertain how far these selected candidates represent all classes of University graduates. We have done this so far as opportunity has permitted; nd the results of our investigation in the case of the Class I. clerkships (which alone we have at present examined, as it only affects the present question) do not bear out the contention of the Commissioners, but go to now that the examinations concerned are very distinctly calculated either to disturb the course of education or to fail to select men representing all the chief types of Iniversity culture.

From our results, which are given below, it is easy to resee what it is that is to be feared under the coming scheme. For in the competition for Class I. clerkships, the major limit of age, twenty-four, is not far removed from VOL. XLI.-NO. 1056.

that about to be adopted for future Indian Civil servants of the highest class. And in them, as we learn will be the case in the future examinations for the Indian service, no limit is placed on the number of subjects that may be selected from those which are examined.

We have before us the results of a number of these competitions held during the last ten or eleven years, and they show, as might have been expected from the scheme of marks, that science men are practically excluded. We have ascertained as far as possible the degrees taken by the successful candidates, and out of thirty we find that twenty-two have taken their degrees in classics, seven in mathematics, and one in natural science; whilst the marks of forty others, whose degrees could not be ascertained, show a similar preponderance of classical men. Now, when it is remembered that many men take honours in science at Oxford, that the number who do so at Cambridge is approaching that of those who take classical honours, and that scholarships are now given for science in considerable numbers at both Universities, it is plain that a scheme which is likely to produce such results as those we have quoted ought on no account to be adopted for the Indian Civil Service. Such a onesided system of selection is not fair to the various classes of candidates, and it is not fair to the dependency which they will be charged to administer. The plain fact is that in the competition for the home services, the marks assigned to classics, mathematics, and science respectively are scarcely fair to mathematics, and very distinctly unfair to science. These branches of learning have been placed upon a far more equal footing at our Universities, and science candidates may fairly claim more equal treatment from the Commissioners in competitions such as those which we are now considering. In the examinations for first-class appointments in the home services, there is the enormous difference of 375 marks against science, out of 1250 in the effective mark values of classics and science. On a recent occasion the difference between the highest and lowest on the list of successful candidates was no more than 158, and although this is indeed a very exceptional case, it shows how enormous the effect of such a difference may be when the candidates are at all evenly matched.

Such a boycotting of the men of scientific training is deplorable enough in the selecting of men for the home services, but in the case of the future administrators of our Indian dependency it would be far more unfortunate. There, if anywhere, men of every type should play their part in the national work. The Cambridge men of science are doing their best to avert the catastrophe that we fear. We hope they will be supported promptly, universally, and energetically by their scientific brethren, both great and small.

THE SHAN STATES.

A Thousand Miles on an Elephant in the Shan States. By Holt S. Hallett. (London and Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1889.)

MR. R. HALLETT'S journeys in Burmah, Siam, and the Shan States, in search of the best path to connect Burmah with China and Siam, were performed partly by boat, and partly on the back of elephants.

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The problem before him was a difficult one, owing to the geography of Central Indo-China being unknown at the time of his visit. He has filled up a great blank in the map of this interesting region, and has proved that a practicable route for the railway exists, chiefly through great and fertile plains, to the populous parts of the Chinese province of Yunnan, and thence through Southern into Central China. The project has been for some years before the public, and has received the unanimous support of the manufacturing and mercantile communities, who have constantly, through the Chambers of Commerce, pressed the matter upon the attention of the Government. The Siamese section of the line, and several important branches, are now being surveyed and estimated for the King of Siam by English engineers, and are likely soon to be taken in hand.

The handsome volume before us contains an excellent index map of Southern China and Indo-China, five route maps, and nearly a hundred original illustrations. The index map shows clearly the projected Anglo-Siamese system of lines, and its continuation into Central China, together with the proposed branch to Pakhoi, the Southern Chinese seaport. On the same map are shown the rival lines which the French propose to construct in order to draw the trade of Southern and Central China and of the Shan States to a French port in Tonquin. The route maps, which are beautifully executed from Mr. Hallett's survey, have the population, geology, and height above sea-level of the country noted on them, which greatly increases their value. Apart from its commercial and geographical aspect, the book will prove of great interest to the politician and the general reader. It gives the account of an able, intelligent, and careful inquirer on the spot, concerning the position of the frontier of the British and Siamese Shan States at the time we annexed Upper Burmah, and it indicates the districts claimed by our new subjects which were then forcibly occupied by the Siamese. It describes the mode of government and the condition of the people in Siam and its Shan States, countries which are now being brought into close political and commercial relations with us. It treats of the threatened absorption of Siamese territory by the French, and shows how vast is our present stake in the country. It points out how imperative it is that we should pay close attention to the proceedings of the French, and safeguard our interests, which include the only known practicable route for the railway connection of Burmah with the populous and fertile regions of Southern and Western China.

The author expresses himself fluently and concisely. His descriptions of scenery, people, and wayside incidents, are extremely good, and the story of the journey is lightly, brightly, and amusingly told. He was exceptionally fortunate in his companions, and had no trouble in gaining the goodwill and assistance of everyone he met during his travels. Dr. Cushing and Dr. McGilvary, who joined the party as interpreters, were masters of the Shan language, and, being missionaries, took a great interest in the welfare of the people. They had made a careful study of their manners and customs, and, having previously traversed the Shan States in various directions, were well known to the chiefs, nobles, and officials of the country. Another missionary, Mr. Wilson, who had resided at Zimmé for

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several years, afforded Mr. Hallett great assistance in collecting statistics and particulars of the trade of the country, and information about the religions, supert tions, and folk-lore of the various races. In the preface, Mr. Hallett gives an interesting history at the races found in Indo-China, and during h travels he collected several of their vocabulare. The aborigines of Lower Indo-China appear to ha been Negritos, probably akin to those of the Andama Islands and the hills of the Malay Peninsula. Otter dwarf races of Negrito origin were met with on the journey, belonging to the Ka tribes in the neighbourho of Luang Prabang. These are probably of the sa stock as the Trao in Cochin China and one of the na: ve races in Formosa, and are, in all likelihood, akin to the Tiao, a race of pygmies with whom the Chinese became acquainted when they entered North-Eastern China more than 4000 years ago. The Bau Lawa tribes met by bec in the Shan States, and found in the hills as far south as the latitude of Bangkok, as well as the Mon race r Lower Burmah and the Cham or people of Cambod migrated into their present habitat at an early pero and are Mongoloid tribes of a race with Malaysian nities. This Mon race is represented in Western Beng and Central India by the Kolarian tribes. They are pro ably descendants of the Ngu stock, including the Part Kuei, and Miao tribes, who, with the Shan, Yang Karen, and King or Chin tribes, formed the chief part of the population of Central and Southern China during th struggle for empire-604-220 B.C.

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Other interesting tribes, known as La-Hu and Kiang T La-Wa, were met with by Mr. Hallett; and these are sad to belong to the same white, race as ourselves. They had already settled about the southern bend of the Hoang-ho 1: the time when the Chinese tribes arrived on the borders China after their long journey from the neighbourhood ( Chaldæa. Part of these various races have been grada ally amalgamated with the Chinese, who have drutless received from them and other races much of them folk-lore and superstitions. It may therefore prove higher interesting to compare the habits, customs, folk-lore, a superstitions of these early inhabitants of China @*1 those of the Chinese. Many of the customs and supe stitions must have been widespread at an early da'. Mr. Hallett notices the strong similarity between same of the customs and superstitions of the Finnish tribei and those of the Shans. The book is rich in legna connected with various events which are said to ha happened in the country. Some of these relate to time when the Lawa were conquered or driven into the hills by the Shans; others relate to events which have since happened in the country; and the remainder *** adaptations from Buddhistic stories, or refer to the guardian spirits of the country, or to romantic incidents that have occurred. The guardian spirits universal worshipped by the Shans are, strange to say, the spirits of ancient Lawa kings and queens reigning in the country at the time when wars were carried on betwee the Lawa and the Shans. Some of these local Sivas are believed to have ogre propensities, and formerly humaz sacrifices were offered up to them. Even the ver previous to Mr. Hallett's visit, the execution of seve criminals was hurried on in order to appease the los

Lawa spirits, so that they might be induced to allow the waterneeded for the irrigation of the fields to flow down from the hills. Human sacrifices at the obsequies of their chiefs were offered by the Shans up to the middle of the sixteenth century, when the States became feudatory to Burmah. At the time the chiefs were buried, elephants, ponies, and slaves were interred with them. The continuance of this custom was strictly prohibited by the Burmese Emperor Fareng Naung. Besides the legends, many humorous stones and fables are current amongst the people, specimens of which are given in the book.

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Buddhism, with the Shans, as with the Chinese, is merely 1loak covering the belief in ancient superstitions, ancestral worship, and spirit worship of the people. Even the images Buddha in the temples are believed to be inhabited by the pints of deceased monks, and when an abbot, celebrated for his learning and virtue, dies, it is the custom for those who have spent their monastic life under his instruction to repare a shrine for him in some part of their house, or, If still in the monastery, in their dormitory, where flowers and food are placed for the acceptance of the spirit of Their deceased teacher. If he is treated with neglect or srespect, he may become a spirit of evil towards his mer pupils. This custom probably arises from the monks being celibate, and therefore having no children to carry on the ancestral worship of the family. Another pecular practice in relation to the images of Buddha is the transferring to him of some of the attributes of the Kwan-yin, the Chinese Goddess of Mercy, the offspring he lotus flower, who terminates the torment of souls purgatory by casting a lotus flower on them. In China, amature offerings are laid before this goddess as a hint her to convey the articles implied by their likenesses the spirits of friends or relations. The offerings, quently accompanied by a scroll stating who the rides are for, consist of miniatures-cut out of papermoney, houses, furniture, carts, ponies, sedan-chairs, pes, male and female slaves, and all that one on this arth might wish for in the way of comfort. In Siam d the Shan States, there being no temple of this godess, Buddha, who is generally depicted as sitting on a tus flower, is besought to do her work, and similar ngs are heaped on his altar, but cut out of wood, or med of rags or any kinds of rubbish, as paper is not Easily obtainable. The whole country outside the villages 5, according to the Shans, infested with jungle demons, the spirits of human beings who have died when absent on their homes. These endeavour to cause the death f others by the same means as caused their own. Their ims have to join the company or clan of demons to which the successful demon belongs. Thus the clan increases in numbers, and is ever becoming more potent or mischief. The people believe in divination, charms, nens, exorcism, sorcery, mediums, witchcraft, and hosts. Witch-hunting rages throughout the country, ad villages are set apart in which those accused of chcraft must reside. Mr. Hallett noticed that the phant-drivers every evening placed pieces of latticek on tall sticks stuck in the ground on the paths eading to and from the camp; and on inquiry he learned ey were to entangle any evil spirit that might wish to enter the camp and injure the party. The Shans conder such precautions fully sufficient to ward off their

malignant foes. The spirits, in their opinion, have as little intelligence as the birds of the air, and any scarecrow device will keep them at a distance. The spirits of those who die from abortion, miscarriage, or childbirth are much dreaded by the widower. If the child dies with the mother, its spirit joins hers in its rambles, endeavouring to harm the living. The first object of their search is the husband and father, whose death they do all they can to accomplish. Sometimes the man endeavours to escape by becoming a monk in a monastery far from his home. This belief, like most of the superstitions in Indo-China, is also current in China.

With reference to the condition of the people in the Shan States, Mr. Hallett says:— ·

"Nowhere in the Shan States is misgovernment and oppression of the people so rampant as in Siam. Taxation in the Shan States is exceedingly light; and the people are not placed under grinding Government masters, but have the power to change their lords at their will; they without receiving either wages or food; amongst them are not compelled to serve for three months in the year gamblers, opium-smokers, and drunkards are looked down upon and despised, and libertinism is nearly unknown. The only loose women seen by me in the Shan States were a few Siamese, who had taken up their quarters at Zimmé, the head-quarters of the Siamese judge.'

Referring to Siam, he gives a fearful description of the oppression ruling in the country, and he says:

"If it were not for slavery, serfdom, vexatious taxation and for the vices of the people, the Siamese might be a happy race. Living as they do chiefly upon vegetables and fish; in a country where every article of food is cheap; where a labourer's wages are such as to enable him to subsist upon a fourth of his earnings; where a few mats and bamboos will supply him with materials for a house sufficient to keep out the rays of the tropical sun and the showers in the rainy season; where little clothing is needed, and that of a cheap and simple kind; where nine-tenths of the land in the country is vacant, without owners or inhabitants-surely such a people might be contented and happy. The land is so fertile and the climate is so humid, that every cereal and fruit of the tropics grows there to perfection. Yet among the common people it is seldom a man or woman can be found who is not the slave of the wealthy or the noble. The Government battens on the vices of the people by granting monopolies for gambling, opium, and spirits. Government places the people under unscrupulous and tyrannical Government masters-merciless, heartless, and exorbitant leeches-who, unless heavily bribed, force the peasantry to do their three months' corvée labour at times and seasons that necessarily break up all habits of industry, and ruin all plans to engage in successful business. Government imposes taxes upon everything grown for human requirements in the country: fishing-nets, stakes, boats, spears, and lines, are all taxed. The Government net is so small that even charcoal and bamboos are taxed to the extent of one in ten, and firewood one in five, in kind. Fancy the feelings of an old woman, after trudging for miles to market with a hundred sticks of firewood, when twenty of the sticks are seized by the tax-gatherer as his perquisite! There is a land-tax for each crop of annuals sown, and paddy and rice are both subject to tax; so that three taxes can thus be reaped from one cereal. The burdensome taxation is levied in the most vexatious manner that can be conceived; for the taxes are let out to unscrupulous Chinamen, who are thus able to squeeze, cheat, and rob the people mercilessly. It is no use appealing from the tax-gatherer to the officials.

Money wins its way, and justice is unknown in Siam. Everyone who has not a friend at Court is preyed upon by the governors and their rapacious underlings. Such being the present state of Siam, one is not surprised to learn that the majority of its inhabitants, besides being slaves and selling their children, are libertines, gamblers, opium smokers or eaters, and given to intoxicating beverages."

Mr. Alabaster, the confidential adviser of the King of Siam, told Mr. Hallett that nine-tenths of the non

Chinese inhabitants of Bangkok were slaves; that 'squeezing" was so universal amongst the nobility, officials, and monopolists, that no man could become rich in the country unless he purchased an appointinent, and thus became one of the rulers; and that justice in the courts was a farce-the heaviest purse, or the most powerful person, invariably winning the case; besides which, if a man was believed to be in possession of money, false charges were brought against him, directly or indirectly, by the officials, in order to wring the money out of him. Everyone that he questioned in Bangkok was of opinion that the state of the people could not be much worse than it was at the time of his visit. Accord

ing to an inspector of police in Siamese employ, the magistrates in that city have the reputation of being the biggest liars in the country, and the police are said to be the greatest thieves, and so unsafe are the people from false charges and lawsuits, that they willingly become the slaves of the powerful in order to gain their protection. The whole volume is replete with interesting information; we heartily commend it to the attention of our readers.

THE LESSER ANTILLES.

The Lesser Antilles. A Guide for Settlers in the British West Indies and Tourists' Companion. By Owen T. Bulkeley. (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, and Rivington, Limited, 1889.)

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INCE Mr. Froude wrote on the West Indies, numerous books and pamphlets have been produced, either to show he was entirely wrong, or to supplement in some important particular the information he gave respecting these islands. The author of the little book before us took note of Mr. Froude's lament that all hand-books to the West Indies "were equally barren" of facts cononnected with the higher interest which the islands possess for Englishmen, and he seeks to supply the deficiency.

Although it is evident that Mr. Bulkeley has not an intimate knowledge of all the islands concerned, this is no great disparagement-especially when we recall their comparative isolation, and the general ignorance which exists even in the West Indies themselves in regard to the affairs of their neighbours.

The facts stated are generally trustworthy, and the hints given to visitors and intending settlers are likely to be useful. There are a moderately good map and some twenty illustrations, most of which, however, are already familiar to us. Although usually grouped together, the several islands in the Lesser Antilles differ much more from each other than is usually supposed. One end of the chain, at the Virgin Islands, touches 19° N. lat., while the other end at Trinidad is in 10 N. lat.

Hence, the extreme points of the Lesser Antilles are about six hundred miles apart, and there is such diversity of soil and climate that each island really requires separate treatment.

There is still much misconception in the mind of the British public as regards the healthiness of these island and also as regards their suitability for settlers with : small capital. If there were someone in this count whose business it was to give accurate information respecting the West Indies, they would probably be gre t

benefited.

The revival of interest in these islands, and the large number of people who annually visit them, are facts which have naturally led to the production of a guide-book. Mr. Bulkeley has, however, aimed at producing something more than a guide-book. The greater part of the volume is devoted to a minute description of the physic features, and the circumstances of the several islands and this is followed by information for intending settlers with the view of inducing those who have capital to

vest to make their homes in these islands. While we cannot endorse all Mr. Bulkeley's statements on this latte point, it is only right to say that none of them are pos tively misleading, and at all times they are discussed w a modesty, and an evident desire to arrive at a right ceclusion, that disarms criticism.

Besides the sugar-cane and cocoa-nut palms, there are industries connected with fruits, fibres, spices, annatin arrow-root, pepper, maize, medicinal plants, scent-producing plants, coca, ramie, tea, tobacco, and many others well suited to the soil and climate.

It is well known that in former days large fortunes were made by sugar planters in the West Indies. Now, however, even the best estates do little more than give a small return on the capital invested, while many cana even do this. It would be unwise, therefore, for the We Indies to confine their attention exclusively, or, indeed largely, to the sugar-cane. Already a change is taking plate Jamaica has pimento, coffee, tropical fruits, cinch, dye-woods, annatto, cacao; Trinidad has cacao, co.si nuts; Grenada is almost exclusively cacao and spices Montserrat is noted for its lime plantations and lime-juice while Dominica exports concentrated lime-juice, cac cocoa-nuts, as well as oranges to the neighbour islands. The tendency is for the cultivation of the Wes Indies to become more and more diversified, and it well it should be so.

With such good markets for produce of all kinds in t United States and Europe, it is evident that West Ind planters could regain much of their former prosperty only they adapted themselves to the new order of things To assist them in the development of new industres Government botanical gardens are in course of be established, under the auspices of Kew, in every isla and from these new plants and information respecti their cultivation are being widely distributed. In such work enterprising governors, such as the late Sir Anthon Musgrave, and the present Governor of Trinidad, S William Robinson, and others, have taken an active part. It is not, however, as regards industrial subjects only th interest in the West Indies has revived of late. The publication of Grisebach's "Flora of the British We Indian Islands" in 1864 (one of the series of color

flora projected by the late Sir William Hooker) was for a long time the only effort made in the cause of botanical science in this part of the world. Since that time, both the fauna and flora have received systematic attention in this country and in the United States, and after a lapse of nearly two hundred years we are beginning to have a clear idea of the distribution of life in the Caribbean Archipelago.

A Joint Committee of the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society and of the British Association, has been engaged for the last three years in investigating ascertained deficiencies in the fauna and flora. Almost every page of Mr. Bulkeley's work affords ample evidence of the aid he has received, directly or indirectly, from the botanical efforts of recent years. More, however, might have been said of the special plants which are characteristic of the several islands, and which contribute so large a share to the interest of daily life in them.

It is to be hoped the day is not far distant when this first unpretentious guide-book to the Lesser Antilles will be followed by others, not less interesting, but still more fully meeting the requirements of those who may visit them for pleasure, or go to them in the hope of pursuing some of the numerous industries opened to settlers in these beautiful islands. D. M.

A TEXT-BOOK OF HUMAN ANATOMY. A Text-book of Human Anatomy, Systematic and Topographical. Including the Embryology, Histology, and Morphology of Man, with special reference to the requirements of Practical Surgery and Medicine. By Alex. Macalister, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. (London: Charles Griffin and Co., 1889.)

WHEN it was announced some time ago that the Professor of Anatomy in the University of Camhedge was engaged in writing a systematic work on Human Anatomy, its publication was looked for with anticipation and interest. Prof. Macalister deservedly enjoys a high reputation as a man of remarkable culture m many branches of knowledge, and as an anatomist in the comprehensive meaning of the term. Curiosity was excited, therefore, as to the mode in which he would treat the subject: whether he would follow the old lines pursued by so many of those who have preceded him in the writing of text-books, or if he would strike out a new path for himself.

In his preface he tells us that he has endeavoured to give a comprehensive account of the Anatomy of Man studied from the Morphological standpoint. Accordingly, we find that, after a few explanatory paragraphs on the Leaning of terms used in description, he proceeds to state his conception of a Cell. His definition is so comprehensive that he regards it in its simplest form as a minute speck of protoplasm without either nucleus or cell-wall; and, in this respect, he may be said to coincide with the view held by Stricker in his well-known article on the Cell. He then briefly describes the process of Karyokinesis, and very properly states that the study of the specialization of the products of cell multiplication

is the only trustworthy guide to the solution of the many morphological problems which Human Anatomy presents. This very naturally leads to an account of the Development of the Embryo, which is, however, compressed into so few pages that we doubt whether a beginner can derive from it a clear conception of the very elaborate set of changes which lead from the simple laminated blastoderm to the form of the foetus at the time of birth.

A chapter on Histology or tissue-anatomy comes next in order. He groups the tissues into five classesepithelial or surface limiting; connective or skeletal ; nervous or sensory; muscular or contractile ; blood and lymph or nutritive. This classification is both simple and convenient, and is much to be preferred to the grouping into cellular, fibrous, membranous and tubular tissues, sometimes adopted. In the course of this chapter he in part fills up some of the gaps in the section on embryology, by describing the development of the nervous and vascular systems.

The skeleton is next described, and following the plan pursued by Prof. Humphry in his well-known treatise, and by Hyrtl, Gegenbaur, Krause, and others in their systematic works, he describes the joints and ligaments along with the bones with which they are associated. This arrangement, undoubtedly, has certain advantages more especially in the direction of economizing space in description.

About one-third of the work, extending to 248 pages, is occupied with the chapters to which we have just referred, and the remaining two-thirds is devoted to an account of the soft parts, including the anatomy of the brain and organs of sense. In this, the larger division of his textbook, Prof. Macalister alters his mode of treating the subject, and departs from the method which systematic writers are in the habit of pursuing.

The rule, almost without exception, has been to describe in separate chapters the muscular, vascular, nervous, ali

mentary, respiratory, and genito-urinary systems, so as to bring before the student in a continuous series all those organs which possess corresponding properties. To some extent, therefore, the arrangement adopted in our text-books of systematic anatomy has had a physiological basis.

Dr. Macalister has not followed this plan. He has adopted an arrangement on a topographical basis, i.e. according to the method pursued in the dissecting-room, in which the student works out for himself the constituent parts of the body as he displays them in the course of his dissections. This method of studying the anatomy of the human body is, as everyone will admit, of enormous importance-indeed, we may say of primary value to the practitioner of medicine and surgery. But it is the custom of the schools to distinguish between the analytical or dissecting-room method, in which the body is picked to pieces by the dissector himself, and the synthetical or systematic method, in which the body is, as it were, built up by the teacher for the student. This custom is the fruit of long experience, for whilst giving full value to the topographical or regional aspect of anatomy, it enables the teacher to show to the student the continuousness of such systems as the vascular, nervous, and alimentary, and to point out their physiological relations. For it should be kept in mind that anatomy is the basis of physiology, as well

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