made on the top of La Croix des Gardes. The number here varied from 1550 per cubic centimetre, when the wind was from the mountainous districts, to 150,000 when it came from the town.

At Mentone the number varied from 1200 per cubic centimetre in air from the hills to 7200 in the air coming from the direction of the town.

Tests were made of the air coming towards the shore from the Mediterranean at three different places-at La I'lage, Cannes, and Mentone. In no case was the amount of dust small. The lowest was 1800 per cubic centimetre, and the highest 10,000 per cubic centimetre.

Observations were also made at Bellagio and Baveno, on the Italian lakes. At both stations the number was always great-generally from 3000 to 10,000 per cubic centimetre. This high number was owing to the wind, during the time of the observations, being light and southerlythat is, from the populous parts of the country. Smaller numbers were observed at the entrance to the Simplon Pass and at Locarno, at both of which places the wind blew from the mountains when the tests were being made. A visit of some days was made to the Rigi Kulm. On the first day, which was May 21, the top of the mountain was in cloud, and the number of particles was as low as 210 per cubic centimetre. Next day the number gradually increased to a little over 2000 per cubic centimetre, after which the number gradually decreased till on the 25th the number was a little over 500 per cubic centimetre at 10 a.m. On descending the mountain to Vitznau the same day, the number was found to be about 600 per cubic centimetre at midday, and in the afternoon at a position about a mile up the lake from Lucerne the number was 650 per cubic centimetre.

Most of the observations taken of Swiss air show it to be comparatively free from dust. This is probably owing to the vast mountainous districts extending in many directions. It is thought that much of the clearness and brilliancy of the Swiss air is due to the small amount of dust in it.

Owing to the kindness of M. Eiffel an investigation of the air over Paris was made on the Tower on May 29. The day was cloudy and stormy, with southerly wind. Most of the observations were taken at the top of the Tower, above the upper platform, and just under the lantern for the electric light. The number of particles was found to vary very rapidly at this elevation, showing that the impure city air was very unequally diffused into the upper air, and that it rose in great masses into the purer air above. Between the hours of 10 a.m. and pm. the extreme numbers observed were 104,000 per rubic centimetre and 226 per cubic centimetre. This latter number was obtained while a rain-cloud was over the Tower, and, as the shower was local, the descending rain seems to have beaten down the city air. The low number continued some time, and was fairly constant during the time required for taking the ten tests of which the above low number is the average.

The air of Paris was tested at the level of the ground on the same day, the observations being made through the kindness of M. Mascart in the garden of the Meteorological Office in the Rue de l'Université. The number on this day varied from 210,000 to 160,000 per cubic centimetre.

Very few tests have been made of the air of London. The air coming from Battersea Park, when a fresh wind was blowing from the south-west, on June 1, was found to vary from 116,000 to 48,000 per cubic centimetre. The numbers observed in cities are of no great value, as so much depends on the immediate surroundings of the position where the tests are made; so that, while no ow number can be observed, a very high one can always be obtained. Those recorded were taken where it was thought the air was purest.

of two or three weeks at three stations-namely, at Kingairloch, which is situated on the shore of Loch Linnhe, and about fourteen miles to the north of Oban, at Alford in Aberdeenshire, the observations being made at a distance of two miles to the west of that village, and at a situation six miles north-west of Dumfries.

At Kingairloch the number varied from 205 per cubic centimetre to 4000 per cubic centimetre. At Alford from 530 to 5700 per cubic centimetre, and at Dumfries from 235 to 11,500 per cubic centimetre. These three stations were in fairly pure country air-that is, pure as regards pollution from the immediate surroundings.

Tests were also made of the air on the top of Ben Nevis on August 1, when the number was found to be 335 per cubic centimetre at I p.m., and 473 two hours later. On the top of Callievar, in Aberdeenshire, on September 9, the number was at first 262, and rose in two hours to 475 per cubic centimetre.

The pollution of the earth's atmosphere by human agencies is then considered, and it is pointed out that, while on the top of the Rigi and in the wilds of Argyllshire air was tested which had only a little over two hundred particles per cubic centimetre, near villages the number goes up to thousands, and in cities to hundreds of thousands. The increase, though great, is shown not to be in proportion to the sources of pollution, and it is pointed out that part of this is owing to the impure stream of air being deepened as well as made more impure.

About 200 particles per cubic centimetre is the lowest number yet observed, but we have no means of knowing whether this is the lowest possible, or of knowing how much of this is terrestrial and how much cosmic, formed by the millions of meteors which daily fall into our atmosphere. Even in the upper strata there seems to be dust, as clouds form at great elevations.

The effect of dust on the transparency of the atmosphere is then discussed with the aid of the figure in the table. It is shown that the transparency of the atmosphere depends on the amount of dust in it, and that the effect of the dust is modified by the humidity of the air. With much dust there is generally little transparency, but it is pointed out that air with even 5000 particles per c.c. may be clear, if it is so dry as to depress the wet-bulb thermometer 10° or more. By comparing days on which there was the same amount of dust, it is seen that the transparency varied with the humidity on two days with the same amount of dust; but the one with a wet-bulb depression of 13° was very clear, while the other, with a wet-bulb depression of only 2, was very thick.

To show the effect of the number of particles on the transparency, a number of days are selected on which the humidity was the same, when it is seen that when the wet-bulb was depressed 4°, with 550 particles the air was clear, medium clear with 814, but thick with 1900. From the table a number of cases are taken illustrating the dependence of the transparency of the air on the number of particles in it, and on the humidity, both dust and humidity tending to decrease the transparency. Humidity alone seems to have no influence on the transparency apart from the dust, but it increases the effect of the dust by increasing the size of the particles.

The modifying effect of the humidity is shown to be influenced by the temperature. The same wet-bulb depression which will give with a given number of particles a thick air at a temperature of 60° will give a clearer air if the temperature be lower. This is illustrated by examples taken from the table. The increased thickening effect accompanying the higher temperature will be due to the increased vapour-pressure permitting the dust particles to attach more moisture to themselves. These remarks all refer to what takes place in what is called dry air-that is, air which gives a depression of the

The conclusion come to from the consideration of all the observations is that the dust in the atmosphere begins to condense vapour long before the air is cooled to the dew-point. It seems probable that in all states of humidity the dust has some moisture attached to it, and that, as the humidity increases, the load of moisture increases with it.

Another method of testing the condensing power of dust for water-vapour is then described. In working this method the dust is collected on a glass mirror, and its condensing power is determined by placing the mirror over a cell in which water is circulated, in the manner of a Dines hygrometer. The temperature at which condensation takes place on the dust and on a cleaned part of the glass is observed. The difference in the two readings gives the condensing power of the dust. One kind of dust artificially prepared was found to condense vapour just at the dew-point, while another condensed it at a temperature 17° above the saturation-point. The atmospheric dust was collected on the mirrors on the same principle as that used in the thermic filter described by the author in a previous paper, the dust being deposited by difference of temperature, the necessary heat being obtained by fixing the collecting mirrors on a windowpane. Dust was also collected by allowing it to settle on the plates. The atmospheric dust was found to condense vapour at temperatures varying from 18 to 45 above the dew-point. This condensing power of dust explains why glass such as that in windows, picture frames, &c., often looks damp while the air is not saturated; and in part it explains why it is so necessary to keep electrical apparatus free from dust, if we wish to have good

insulation.

The constitution of haze is then considered. It is shown that in many cases it is simply dust, on which there seems to be always more or less moisture. But as what is known as haze is generally seen in dry air, the effect is principally due to dust.

Some notes from the Rigi Kulm are given, where "glories" and coloured clouds were seen. The condition of the transparency of the lower air as seen from the top of the mountain is discusse 1 with the aid of the observations made by observers at the lower levels. These observations were kindly supplied by M. Bilwiller, of the Swiss Meteorological Office. The difference observed at the top of the mountain in the transparency of the air in different directions is shown to have been caused by a difference in the humidity of the air in the different directions. The variation in the number of particles on the top of the mountain is considered, and it is shown that the great increase in the number which took place on the se ond day was probably due to the valley air being driven up the slopes, reasons being given for this supposition. The colouring in clouds, and on scenery at sunrise and sunset, as seen from the tops of mountains and valleys, is remarked upon, and it is shown that there is reason for supposing that when seen from the lower level the colours will generally be the more brilliant and varied.

The relation of the amount of dust to the barometric

distribution is then investigated-as to whether cyclonic or anticyclonic areas have most dust in them. It is shown that there is most dust in the anticyclonic areas. The interpretation of this, however, is shown to be that the amount of dust depends on the amount of wind at the time, and as there is generally little wind in anticyclonic areas, there is generally much dust. Diagrams are given showing by means of curves the amount of dust on each day, and also the velocity of the wind. The curves are found to bear a close relation to each other-when the one rises the other falls. The only exceptions to this are when the stations where the observations were made are not equally surrounded in all directions by sources of pollution. In that case, even with little wind, if it blows from an unpolluted direction the amount of dust is not great.

The increase in the dust particles which takes place when the wind falls, seems to point to a probable increase of the infection germs in the atmosphere when the weather is calm. As, however, the conditions are not quite the same, the organic germs being much larger than most of the dust particles, and settling more quickly, it may be as well, while accepting the suggestion, to refrain from drawing any conclusion.

In all the fogs tested, the amount of dust has been found to be great. This is shown to be what might now be expected from a consideration of the conditions under which fogs are formed. One condition necessary for the formation of a fog is that the air be calm. But when the air is calm both dust and moisture tend to accumulate, and the dust, by increasing the radiating power of the ar, soon lowers its temperature and causes it to condense vapour on the dust and form a fog. The thickness of fog seems to depend in part on the amount of dus present, as town fogs, apart from their greater blackness. are also more dense than country ones. The greater amount of dust in city air, by increasing its radiating power, it is thought, may be the cause of the greater frequency of fogs in town than in country air.

At the end of the paper some relations are pointed our between the amount of dust and the temperature at the time the observations were made, showing that hes there was a large amount of dust there was also a he temperature; and some speculations are entered into a to the effect of dust on climate. But it is at the same time pointed out that the observations are far too l and imperfect to form a foundation for any important conclusion on that subject.

In a short appendix is given the result of some tests made between January 23 and 29 of this year at Garelochea During the gale on Saturday, the 25th, the number was rather under 1000 per cubic centimetre. On Monday, though the wind was still high, the number fell to abon 250; and on Tuesday, when the wind had fallen and veered to the north, the number fell lower than had been previously observed. The number varied from a little over 100 to about 90 per cubic centimetre. On this di the air was remarkable for its clearness, the sun was very strong, and the evening set in with a sharp frost.

JOHN ALKEN.

P.S.-The author of the paper also showed at the same meeting of the Society the apparatus which have just beer constructed from his designs for the Observatory on Ben Nevis. The apparatus has been constructed by the d of a Government grant, obtained by the Council of the Scottish Meteorological Society, for the purpose of carry ing on the investigation on the dust in the atmosphere a the top of Ben Nevis. Two complete sets of apparatus were shown. The one is the large laboratory form of the dust-counter, and is to be fixed, in the meantime, in the tower of the Observatory; the air being taken in to it by means of a pipe. The other is the small portable form instrument, to be used when the direction of the wind is such as to bring the smoke of the Observatory towards the in the hands of Mr. Rankin, one of the Ben Ne tower. This latter instrument has for a short time beer observers, who has been practising with it near Edinburgh before beginning regular work at the Observators

With reference to some of the letters a few words of explanation are necessary.

gh is adopted in preference to g for r, since this letter is also the equivalent of h in such words as Tuдpa, which, if transliterated gidra, would lose its resemblance to the word hydra, with which it is identical.

Although and u have the same sound, and with a few rare exceptions the letter used in the original may be recognized by a simple rule, it is recommended that the latter should be distinguished by the sign -, since the use of the same English symbol for two Russian characters is objectionable.

The semi-vowels, ь and ы, must be indicated when present, except at the end of a word, by the sign' placed above the line; otherwise, the transliteration of two Russian characters might give the same sequence as one of the compound equivalents, and it would become difficult to trace the words in a dictionary.

As regards the compound equivalents, nine out of the twelve may be at once recognized, since h must always be coupled with the preceding, and y with the succeeding, letter.

Where proper names have been Russianized, it is better whenever possible to use them in the original form rather than to re-transliterate them; there is no reason why Wales should be rendered Uel's, or Wight written as Uait. When a Russian name has a more familiar transliterated form, it is advisable to quote this as well as an exact transliteration with a cross reference.

The system will be adopted without delay in the following publications: the Catalogue of the Natural History Museum Library; the Zoological and Geological Records; the publications of the Royal Society, the Linnean, Zoological, and Agricultural Societies, and the Institution of Civil Engineers; the Mineralogical Magazine, and the Annals of Botany; and it is hoped that the system will be generally used.

An expression of grateful thanks is due to those who have assisted in the arrangement of this system by criticisms and suggestions; more especially to Madame de Novikoff and N. W. Tchakowsky.

The undersigned either accept the proposed system in the publications with which they are severally connected, or express their approval of the same :

II

II

LI

J. T. Naaké.

B. B. Woodward

J. W. Gregory

Director, Natural History Museum.
Reader in Russian, &c., Oxford.
University, St. Petersburg.
U.S. Geological Survey.
Smithsonian Institution.
Bot. Sec., Linnean Society.
Zoological Society.

Zoological Record.

Geological Record.

Annals of Botany.

Index to Mineralogical Papers.
British Museum.

Natural History Museum Library.
Natural History Museum.

0

원

V

to

Ц

y

Ꮦ

b

THE BOTANICAL INSTITUTE AND MARINE STATION AT KIEL.

PROF. J. REINKE contributes to the Botanisches Centralblatt a very interesting account of the Botanical Institute at Kiel, and of the Marine Station attached to it, as far as they are employed for botanical researches. The harbour of Kiel is remarkably favourable for the observation of marine Algæ and the investigation of their life-history. In brown seaweeds the immediate neighbourhood is exceedingly rich, being scarcely inferior in the number of species to any other spot on the coasts of Europe. One important order, the Dictyotaceæ, is

altogether wanting; but another very interesting order, the Tilopterideæ, is well represented. In green Alga, the large Siphoneæ of the Mediterranean and other warmer seas are represented only by Bryopsis. Of red Algæ, the number of species and genera is inferior to that found in the Mediterranean or on the coasts of England and France; but almost all the different types of growth are well represented. Although the Baltic has, like the Mediterranean, no tides, the sea-level of Kiel harbour falls so considerably with a south wind, that many littoral Algæ are then completely exposed.

The growing-houses consist of a horse-shoe-shaped block of buildings, on one side of which is a long low house, and of a detached underground house. In designing the plan, the object specially kept in view was to furnish favourable conditions for the cultivation of all the important types of warmer climates; and the houses were therefore not built higher than seemed absolutely necessary. The chief part of the block consists of a higher and a lower cool-house, a higher and a lower hot-house, and a propagating-house. The higher houses are eight, the lower four metres in height, and the propagating-house still lower. Each of the lower houses is again divided into two, for different temperatures. The warmer division of the lower hot-house contains three basins for the culture of tropical freshwater plants. The propagating-house is, in the same way, divided into two. The underground house is a long building entirely buried, the glass roof alone projecting above the surface of the ground. The heating is effected by hot-water pipes.

The various study-rooms are devoted partly to morphological and systematic, partly to physiological work. The former comprise a large herbarium in the top story, and four roomy work-rooms on the ground floor, in which are also kept those portions of the herbarium which are required for reference for the work in hand, and the whole of the dried Algæ. The first story is devoted to the residence of the Director. One of the work rooms is devoted entirely to marine Algæ; each is fitted up with microscopical apparatus, and they are furnished with a very extensive reference-library. The second portion comprises a room with a small chamber opening out of it for chemico-physiological work: a room with stone floor, facing the north, for physico-physiological work; and a dark chamber with a balcony in the top story. Before the balcony a large sandstone slab is let into the wall of the building for the erection of a heliostat. In the basement story is a dynamo-machine.

For the collection of the seaweeds both row-boats and steamers are employed. For scraping the larger species off the rocks, Dr. Reinke has contrived a special dragnet, of which a drawing is appended, furnished with a row of sharp teeth at the mouth.

The culture of seaweeds presents greater difficulties in summer than in winter. They continue to grow in the Baltic at any temperature above zero C.; and, in cultivation, a low temperature is much more favourable to their growth than a high one. In the Institute they continue to fructify through the winter in the cool houses if protected from actual frost, the smaller species going through their complete cycle of development from the germinating spore; but a frequent change of the sea-water, or the addition of nutrient substances, is desirable. In summer the incidence of direct sunlight must be carefully avoided, and the temperature of the air must be kept as low as possible. For this purpose ice-cupboards have been built. Prof. Reinke has contrived a special arrangement for the cultivation of seaweeds in their native habitat. In the harbour near to the Botanic Garden, a wooden buoy is anchored, from which is suspended a wire basket by chains from 3 to 4 metres in length. In this floating aquarium the seaweeds grow exposed to their most favourable natural conditions of currents and

SIR ROBERT KANE, LL.D., F.R.S.

SIR ROBERT KANE was born on September 241810, in Dublin. This was the fiftieth year of King George III. and the tenth of the Union. Shortly after wards his father established chemical works on the North Wall, by the side of the River Liffey, which in time developed into important and well-known sulphuric acid and alkali works. His mother was Ellen Troy, of whose family Dr. Troy, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin. was a member. Sir Robert Kane very early in his life developed a taste for chemical knowledge, and in 1825 his first paper, "On the Existence of Chlorine in the Native Peroxide of Manganese," was published, and followed by a series of contributions on kindred themes He entered Trinity College, Dublin, in 1829, and pro

In

and more petty the dispute the more time seemed to be expended. Now, as we have pointed out more than once, enormous waste of time is inevitable where the suitors in patent cases, especially in cases which involve scientific details, as most of them do at the present day, have to appear before a judge who is not himself a man of science. They have to begin by teaching his lordship the rudiments of that branch of science of which the disputed patent is a practical application. That our judges are painstaking, rapid, and acute pupils may readily be granted, but still time has to be consumed in the task, and there is something pathetic in the spectacle of an able and conscientious lawyer wrestling with the problems presented by the highest applications of, say, electricity or chemistry to industry, while scientific witnesses are contradicting each other all round him. We fear that judicial time will continue to be wasted so long as

After over twenty-two years of hard and earnest work in the development of the Cork College, he resigned the presidency in 1873, and took up his residence in Dublin, where he died on Sunday, the 16th instant.

Sir Robert Kane, in addition to the very numerous papers above referred to, was the author of a large and most important work on the industrial resources of Ireland, a theme which he handled in a painstaking and judicious manner. In his very early days he had acquired a practical knowledge of the value and importance of many of the neglected industries of Ireland, and from his chair in the lecture theatre of the Dublin Society, he often called attention to this subject, one which through out his long life he never lost sight of. It is not without interest to note the fact that much is owing to the Royal Dublin Society for the ready help afforded to their two Professors, now both deceased, Sir Richard Griffith and Sir Robert Kane, in their efforts to advance the industries of Ireland.

In 1841, Sir R. Kane was awarded by the Royal Society a Royal Medal for his researches into the chemical h story of archil and litmus; and in 1843, the Cunningham Gold Medal of the Royal Irish Academy, for his researches on the nature and constitution of the compounds of ammonia. These memoirs will be found published in the Transactions of the respective institutions.

In recognition of his scientific labours, and on his appointment to the presidency of Queen's College, Cork, he received knighthood in 1846 from Lord Heytesbury, the then Irish Viceroy. On the passing of Mr. Fawcett's Act in 1875, which altered the constitution of the University of Dublin, and appointed a Council, Sir Robert Kane was elected one of the first Roman Catholic members of that body, a post which he held until 1885, when the late Dr. Maguire was elected.

In this brief obituary notice, it is not necessary to attempt any analysis of the scientific work accomplished by Sir Robert Kane, but it is impossible to conclude it without a tribute of respect and affection to the many high and excellent qualities of the man, who in the various positions of Professor, head of a young educational establishment, or President of an Academy, won equally, from all with whom he came in contact, regard

and esteem.

NOTES.

PROF SCHUSTER has been elected Bakerian Lecturer for the rent year. The lecture is to be delivered in the apartments of the Royal Society on March 20.

LAST week Mr. Justice Kay complained that judicial time is sally wasted over patent cases, and he declared that the smaller

questions which demand long scientific training. There can be no change for the better until judges have sitting on the bench with them scientific assessors as they have now nava assessors, or until scientific cases are passed on as a matter of course to qualified referees as cases involving accounts are. It requires at least as much special training, and is as far outside the experience of ordinary lawyers, to settle a scientific case, as to decide whether a ship has been properly navigated, or whether a set of accounts tell in favour of a plaintiff or a defendant.

ON Tuesday evening there was some discussion in the House of Commons as to the supplemental vote of £100,000 for the purchase of a site at South Ken-ington for a suitable building for the housing of the science collections. Mr. Jackson explained that the extent of the land was four and a half acres, and the sum at which it was valued included a building for which the Government now paid a rent of £1500 a year, which would, of course, fall out of the Estimates when the Government became the proprietors of the land in question. No commission was to be paid to any person on either side in respect of this transaction, which was a direct one between the Commissioners of the 1851 Exhibition and the Government. Sir H. Roscoe thought it desirable that the money should be voted at once. The plot of land was the only one ever likely to be available for the purpose. Mr. Mundella said that as he had been pressing upon Governments for the last ten years the necessity for them to acquire this land, he thought that he ought to say something in defence of what the Government had done in asking for the sum on the present occasion. He did not approve of supplementary estimates, and he thought that no one would be more glad to get rid of them than the Government themselves. This question, however, had been pressing for the last ten years, because for the whole of that period the most valuable national science collections, such as no other country in the world possessed, had been housed in the most disgraceful manner. The Treasury had all along resisted the demands made upon them to sanction the expenditure necessary for the erection of a Museum to hold these collections, notwithstanding that three departmental committees had reported in favour of that expenditure. The only question, therefore, was whether the Government were getting good value for their money in making this purchase. He knew something of the value of the land, which had been fixed by eminent surveyors at £200,000, while the Government were going to get it for £70,000. The money which the Commissioners would receive in respect of the sale would be appropriated to providing scholarships for the promotion of technical education to the amount of £5000 per annum, which were to be open to all schools of every denomination in the United Kingdom. He therefore urged the Committee to agree to this proposal at once. Sir L. Playfair explained that the Commissioners of the Exhibition of 1851 had formed their estimate of