SECT. I. The birth and infancy of Philip. Beginning of his reign. His first con- quests. The birth of Alexander SECT. II. The sacred war. Sequel of the history of Philip. He endeavours in vain SECT. III. Demosthenes, upon Philip's attempting Thermopyle, harangues the Athe- nians, and animates them against that prince. Little regard is paid to his advice. Olynthus, upon the point of being besieged by Philip, addresses the Athenians for Demosthenes endeavours by his orations to rouse them from their lethar- gy. They send but a very weak succour, and Philip at length takes the place SECT. IV. Philip declares in favour of Thebes against the Phocæans, and thereby en- gages in the sacred war. He lulls the Athenians, notwithstanding the remonstrances of Demosthenes, into security, by a pretended peace and false promises. He seizes on Thermopylæ, subjects the Phocæans, and puts an end to the sacred war. He is - - SECT. V. Philip being returned to Macedonia, extends his conquests into Illyria and Thrace. He projects a league with the Thebans, the Messenians, and the Argives, to invade Peloponnesus in concert with them. Athens having declared in favour of the Lacedæmonians, this league is dissolved. He again makes an attempt upon Eubea, but Phocion drives him out of it. Character of that celebrated Athenian. Philip besieges Perinthus and Byzantium. The Athenians, animated by the orations of Demosthenes, send succours to those two cities, under the command of Phocion, who forces Philip to raise the siege of those places SECT. VI. Philip, by his intrigues, succeeds in getting himself appointed generalissimo of the Greeks, in the council of the Amphictyons. He possesses himself of Elatæa. The Athenians and Thebans, alarmed by the conquest of this city, unite against Philip. He makes overtures of peace, which upon the remonstrances of Demos- thenes, are rejected. A battle is fought at Cheronæa, where Philip gains a signal victory. Demosthenes is accused and brought to a trial by Æschines. The latter SECT. VII. Philip, in the assembly of the Amphictyons, is declared general of the Greeks against the Persians, and prepares for that important expedition. Domestic troubles in his household. He divorces Olympias, and marries another wife. He solemnizes the marriage of Cleopatra his daughter with Alexander king of Epirus, and is killed at the nuptials SECT. VIII. Memorable actions and sayings of Philip. Good and bad qualities of THE HISTORY OF THE PERSIANS AND GRECIANS. BOOK IX. CONTINUED. CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF SOCRATES ABRIDGED. As the death of Socrates is one of the most considerable events of antiquity, I think it incumbent on me to treat that subject with all the extent it deserves. With this view I shall go somewhat back, in order to give the reader a just idea of this Prince of Philosophers. Two authors will supply me principally with what I have to say upon the subject:-Plato and Xenophon, both disciples of Socrates. It is to them that posterity is indebted for many of his discourses (as that philosopher left nothing_in_writing,*) and for an ample account of all the circumstances of his condemnation and death. Plato was an eye-witness of the whole, and relates, in his Apology, the manner of Socrates' accusation and defence; in Crito, his refusal to make his escape out of prison; in his Phædon, his admirable discourse upon the immortality of the soul, which was immediately followed by his death. Xenophon was absent at that time, and upon his return to his native country, after the expedition of the younger Cyrus against his brother Artaxerxes: so that he wrote his Apology of Socrates only from the report of others; but his actions and discourses in his four books of memorable things, he repeats from his own knowledge. Diogenes Laertius has given us the life of Socrates, but in a very dry and abridged manner. * Socrates, cujus ingenium variosque sermones immortalitati scriptis suis Plato tradidit, literam nullam reliquit. Cic. de Orat. l. iii. n. 57. SECTION I. Birth of Socrates. He applies at first to sculpture; then to the study of the sciences: his wonderful progress in them. His taste for moral philosophy: his manner of living, and sufferings from the ill humour of his wife. A. M. 3533. Socrates was born at Athens, in the fourth year of Ant. J. C. 471. the seventy-seventh Olympiad.* His father Sophroniscus was a sculptor, and his mother Phænarete a midwife. Hence we may observe, that meanness of birth is no obstacle to true merit, in which alone solid glory and real nobility consists. It appears from the comparisons which Socrates often used in his discourses, that he was neither ashamed of his father's nor mother's profession. He was surprised that a sculptor should employ his whole attention to fashion an insensible stone into the likeness of a man, and that a man should take so little pains not to resemble an insensible stone. He would often say, that he exercised the function of midwife with regard to the mind, in making it bring forth all its thoughts; and this was indeed the peculiar talent of Socrates. He treated subjects in so simple, natural, and clear an order, that he made those with whom he disputed say what he wished, and find an answer themselves to all the questions he proposed to them. He at first learned his father's trade, in which he made himself very expert. In the time of Pausanias, there was a Mercury and the Graces still to be seen at Athens of his workmanship; and it is to be presumed, these statues would not have found a place among those of the greatest masters in the art, if they had not been thought worthy of it. Crito is reported to have taken him out of his father's shop,|| from admiration of his fine genius, and the opinion he entertained that it was inconsistent for a young man, capable of the greatest things. to continue perpetually employed upon stone with a chisel in his hand. He was the disciple of Archelaus, who conceived a great affection for him. Archelaus had been pupil to Anaxagoras, a very celebrated philosopher. His first study was physics, the works of nature, and the motions of the heavens, stars, and planets, according to the custom of those times, wherein only that part of philosophy was known; and Xenophon assures us that he was very well acquainted with it. But after having found, by his own experience,* ** how difficult, abstruse, and intricate, and, at the same || Diog. p. 101. * Diog. Laert. in Socrat. P. 100. † Ibid. p. 110. Plat. in Theatet. p. 149, &c. Paus. l. ix. p. 596. Lib. iv. Memorab. p. 710. **Socrates primus philosophiam devocavit è cœlo, ut in urbibus collocavit, et in domos etiam introduxit, et coëgit de vitâ et moribus, rebusque bonis et malis quærere. Cic. Tusc. Quæst.l. v. n. 10. Socrates mihi videtur, id quod constat inter omnes, primus à rebus occultis, et ab ipsâ naturâ involutis, in quibus omnes ante eum philosophi occupati fuerunt, avocavisse philosophiam, et ad vitam communem adduxisse; ut de virtutibus et vitiis, omninoque de bonis rebus et malis quereret; cœlestia autem vel procul esse à nostrâ cognitione censeret, vel si maximè cognita essent, nihil tamen ad bene vivendum conferre. Cic. Acad Quest. 1. i. n. 15. time, of how little use that kind of learning was to the generality of mankind, he was the first, as Cicero remarks, who conceived the thought of bringing down philosophy from heaven, to place it in cities, and introduce it into private houses; humanizing it, if I may use that expression, and rendering it more familiar, more useful in common life, more within the reach of man's capacity, and applying it solely to what might make them more rational, just, and virtuous. He thought it was a sort of folly to devote the whole vivacity of his mind!* and employ all his time, in inquiries merely curious, involved in impenetrable darkness, and absolutely incapable of contributing to the happiness of mankind; whilst he neglected to inform himself in the ordinary duties of life, and to learn what is conformable, or opposite to, piety, justice, and probity; in what fortitude, temperance, and wisdom consists; what is the end of all government, what the rules of it, and what qualities are necessary. for commanding and ruling well. We shall see in the sequel the use he made of this study. It was so far from preventing his discharging the duties of a good citizen, that it was the means of making him the more observant of them. He bore arms, as did all the people of Athens; but with more pure and elevated motives. He made many campaigns, was present in many actions, and always distinguished himself by his valour and fortitude. He was seen, towards the end of his life, giving in the senate, of which he was a member, the most shining proofs of his zeal for justice, without being intimidated by the greatest present dangers. He had accustomed himself early to a sober, severe, laborious life; without which it seldom happens, that men are capable of discharging the greatest part of the duties of good citizens. It is difficult to carry the contempt of riches and the love of poverty farther than he did. He looked upon it as a divine perfection to be in want of nothing; and believed, that the less we are contented with, the nearer we approach to the Divinity. Seeing the pomp and show displayed by luxury in certain ceremonies, and the infinite quantity of gold and silver employed in them: How many things, said he, congratulating himself on his condition, do I not want!-Quantis non egeo! His father left him fourscore minæ, that is to say, about 2007. which he lent to one of his friends who had occasion for that sum. But the affairs of that friend having taken an ill turn, he lost the whole, and suffered that misfortune with such indifference and tranquillity, that he did not so much as complain of it. We find in Xenophon's Economics,|| that his whole estate amounted to no more than five minæ, or twelve pounds. The richest persons of * Xenoph. Memorab. I. i. p. 710. † Xenoph. Memorab. 1. i. p. 731. Socrates in pompâ, cùm magna vis auri argentique ferretur; Quàm multa non desidero, inquit Cic. Tusc. Quæst. I. v. Liban. in Apolog. Socrat. p. 640. Xenoph. Econ. p. 822. Athens were among his friends, who could never prevail upon him to accept any share of their wealth. When he was in want of any thing, he was not ashamed to declare it: If I had money,* said he, one day in an assembly of his friends, I should buy me a cloak. He did not address himself to any body, in particular, but contented himself with that general information. His disciples contended for the honour of making him this small present; which was being too slow, says Seneca: their own observation ought to have anticipated both the want and the demand. He generously refused the offers and presents of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, who was desirous of having him at his court; adding, that he could not go to a man who could give him more than it was in his power to return. Another philosopher does not approve this answer. "Would it have been making a prince a small return," says Seneca, " to undeceive him in his false ideas of grandeur and magnificence; to inspire him with a contempt for riches; to show him the right use of them; to instruct him in the great art of reigning; in a word, to teach him how to live, and how to die? But," continues Seneca, "the true reason which prevented his going to the court of that prince, was, that he did not think it consistent for him to seek a voluntary servitude, whose liberty even a free city could not tolerate." Noluit ire ad voluntariam servitutem is cujus libertatem civitas libera ferre non potuit ?† The peculiar austerity of his life did not render him gloomy and morose, as was common enough with the philosophers of those times. In company and conversation he was always gay and facetious, and the life and soul of the entertainment. Though he was very poor, he piqued himself upon the neatness of his person and house, and could not endure the ridiculous affectation of Antisthenes, who always wore dirty and ragged clothes. He told him once, that through the holes in his cloak, and the rest of his tatters, abundance of vanity might be discerned. One of the most distinguishing qualities of Socrates, was a tranquillity of soul, that no accident, no loss, no injury, no ill treatment, could ever alter. Some have believed, that he was by nature hasty and passionate, and that the moderation to which he had attained, was the effect of his reflections, and of the efforts he had made to subdue and correct himself; which would still add to his merit. Seneca tells us, that he had desired his friends to apprise him whenever they saw him ready to fall into a passion, and that he had given them that privilege over him, which he took himself with them. Indeed, the best time to call in aid against a passion, which has so violent and sudden a power over us, is when we are yet our * Socrates amicis audientibus: Emissem, inquit, pallum, si nummos haberem. Neminem poposcit, omnes admonuit. A quo acciperet, ambitus fuit-Post hoc quisquis properaverit, serò dat; jam Socrati defuit. Senec. de Benef. 1. vii. c. 24. † Senec. de Benef. 1. v. c. 6. 1. ix. c. 35. Xenoph. in Conviv. Senec, de Irâ. 1. iii. c. 15. Elian. 1. iv. c. 11, and |