of arms and the science of war, and prevented his succeeding so well in it as those who made it their sole business and exercise. But Agesilaus spoke and acted in that manner from his prejudice in favour of the Lacedæmonian education; for indeed those whom he wished to consider only as simple artizans, demonstrated by the glorious victories they obtained over the Persians, and even Sparta itself, that they were by no means inferior to the Lacedæmonians, entirely soldiers as they were, either in valour or military knowledge. SECTION III. Different kind of troops of which the armies of the Lacedæmonians and Athenians were composed. The armies both of Sparta and Athens were composed of four sorts of troops: citizens, allies, mercenaries, and slaves. The soldiers were sometimes marked in the hand, to distinguish them from the slaves, who had that character impressed upon their forehead. Interpreters believe, that it is in allusion to this double manner of marking, that it is said in the Revelation, that all were obliged to receive the mark of the beast in the right hand, or in their foreheads; and that St. Paul says of himself;† I bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus. The citizens of Lacedæmonia were of two sorts; either those who inhabited Sparta itself, and who for that reason were called Spartans, or those who lived in the country. In Lycurgus's time the Spartans amounted to 9000, and the others to 30,000. This number seems to have been somewhat diminished in the time of Xerxes, as Demaratus, speaking to him of the Lacedæmonian troops, computes only 8000 Spartans. The latter were the flower of the nation; and we may judge of the value they set upon them, by the anxiety the republic expressed for the 3 or 400 besieged by the Athenians in the small island of Sphacteria, where they were taken prisoners. The Lacedæmonians generally spared the troops of their country very much, and sent only a few of them into the armies; but even these few constituted their chief strength. When a Lacedæmonian general was asked how many Spartans there were in the army; he answered, as many as are necessary to repulse the enemy. They served the state at their own expense, and it was not till after a length of time that they received pay from the public. The greatest number of the troops in the two republics were composed of the Allies, who were paid by the cities which sent them. The foreign troops, who were paid by the republic to whose aid they were called in, were styled Mercenaries. The Spartans never marched without Helots, and we have seen that in the battle of Platææ every citizen had seven. I do not believe that this number was fixed, nor do I well comprehend for what service they were designed. It would have been very bad policy to have put arms into the hands of so great a number of slaves, generally much discontented with their masters' harsh treatment of them, and who consequently would have had every thing to fear from them in a battle. Herodotus, however, in the passage I have cited from him, represents them carrying arms in the field as light-armed soldiers. The infantry consisted of two kinds of soldiers. The one were heavy-armed, and carried great bucklers, lances, half-pikes, and scimitars; and of these the main strength of the army consisted. The other were light-armed, that is to say, with bows and slings. They were commonly placed in the front of the battle, or upon the wings as a first line, to shoot arrows, and fling javelins and stones at the enemy; and when they had discharged, they retired through the intervals behind the battalions as a second line and continued their volleys. Thucydides,* in describing the battle of Mantinæ, divides the Lacedæmonian troops in this manner. There were seven regiments of four companies each, without including the Sciritæ, to the number of 600; these were horsemen, of whom I shall soon speak farther. The company consisted, according to the Greek interpreter, of 128 men, and was subdivided into four squadrons, each of thirty-two men. So that a regiment amounted to 512 men, and the seven made together 3584. Each squadron had four men in front and eight in depth, for that was the usual depth of the files, which the officers might change according as circumstances required. The Lacedæmonians did not actually begin to use cavalry till after the war with Messene, where they perceived their want of it. They raised their horse principally in a small city not far from Lacedæmon, called Sciros, from whence these troops were denominated Sciritæ. They were always on the extremity of the left wing, and this was their post by right. Cavalry was still more rare amongst the Athenians: the situation of Attica, broken with abundance of mountains, was the cause of this. It did not amount, after the war with the Persians, which was the time when the prosperity of Greece was at the highest, to more than 300 horse: but increased afterwards to 1200; a very small body, however, for so powerful a republic. I have already observed, that amongst the ancients, as well Greeks as Romans, no mention is made of the stirrup, which is very surprising. They threw themselves nimbly on horseback: Corpora saltu Subjiciunt in equosÆn. l. xii. ver. 287. Thucyd. 1. v. p. 390. of arms and the science of war, and prevented his succeeding so well in it as those who made it their sole business and exercise. But Agesilaus spoke and acted in that manner from his prejudice in favour of the Lacedæmonian education; for indeed those whom he wished to consider only as simple artizans, demonstrated by the glorious victories they obtained over the Persians, and even Sparta itself, that they were by no means inferior to the Lacedæmonians, entirely soldiers as they were, either in valour or military knowledge. SECTION III. Different kind of troops of which the armies of the Lacedæmonians and Athenians were composed. The armies both of Sparta and Athens were composed of four sorts of troops: citizens, allies, mercenaries, and slaves. The soldiers were sometimes marked in the hand, to distinguish them from the slaves, who had that character impressed upon their forehead. Interpreters believe, that it is in allusion to this double manner of marking, that it is said in the Revelation, that all were obliged to receive the mark of the beast in the right hand, or in their foreheads ;* and that St. Paul says of himself;† I bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus. The citizens of Lacedæmonia were of two sorts; either those who inhabited Sparta itself, and who for that reason were called Spartans, or those who lived in the country. In Lycurgus's time the Spartans amounted to 9000, and the others to 30,000. This number seems to have been somewhat diminished in the time of Xerxes, as Demaratus, speaking to him of the Lacedæmonian troops, computes only 8000 Spartans. The latter were the flower of the nation; and we may judge of the value they set upon them, by the anxiety the republic expressed for the 3 or 400 besieged by the Athenians in the small island of Sphacteria, where they were taken prisoners. The Lacedæmonians generally spared the troops of their country very much, and sent only a few of them into the armies; but even these few constituted their chief strength. When a Lacedæmonian general was asked how many Spartans there were in the army; he answered, as many as are necessary to repulse_the enemy. They served the state at their own expense, and it was not till after a length of time that they received pay from the public. The greatest number of the troops in the two republics were composed of the Allies, who were paid by the cities which sent them. The foreign troops, who were paid by the republic to whose aid they were called in, were styled Mercenaries. The Spartans never marched without Helots, and we have seen that in the battle of Platæ every citizen had seven. I do not believe that this number was fixed, nor do I well comprehend for what service they were designed. It would have been very bad policy to have put arms into the hands of so great a number of slaves, generally much discontented with their masters' harsh treatment of them, and who consequently would have had every thing to fear from them in a battle. Herodotus, however, in the passage I have cited from him, represents them carrying arms in the field as light-armed soldiers. The infantry consisted of two kinds of soldiers. The one were heavy-armed, and carried great bucklers, lances, half-pikes, and scimitars; and of these the main strength of the army consisted. The other were light-armed, that is to say, with bows and slings. They were commonly placed in the front of the battle, or upon the wings as a first line, to shoot arrows, and fling javelins and stones at the enemy; and when they had discharged, they retired through the intervals behind the battalions as a second line and continued their volleys. Thucydides,* in describing the battle of Mantinæ, divides the Lacedæmonian troops in this manner. There were seven regiments of four companies each, without including the Sciritæ, to the number of 600; these were horsemen, of whom I shall soon speak farther. The company consisted, according to the Greek interpreter, of 128 men, and was subdivided into four squadrons, each of thirty-two men. So that a regiment amounted to 512 men, and the seven made together 3584. Each squadron had four men in front and eight in depth, for that was the usual depth of the files, which the officers might change according as circumstances required. The Lacedæmonians did not actually begin to use cavalry till after the war with Messene, where they perceived their want of it. They raised their horse principally in a small city not far from Lacedæmon, called Sciros, from whence these troops were denominated Scirite. They were always on the extremity of the left wing, and this was their post by right. Cavalry was still more rare amongst the Athenians: the situation of Attica, broken with abundance of mountains, was the cause of this. It did not amount, after the war with the Persians, which was the time when the prosperity of Greece was at the highest, to more than 300 horse: but increased afterwards to 1200; a very small body, however, for so powerful a republic. I have already observed, that amongst the ancients, as well Greeks as Romans, no mention is made of the stirrup, which is very surprising. They threw themselves nimbly on horseback:Corpora saltu Subjiciunt in equosÆn. I. xii. ver. 287. * Thucyd. 1. v. p. 390. Sometimes the horse, trained early to that practice, would bend his fore legs to give his master the opportunity of mounting with more ease: Inde inclinatus collum, submissus et armos Those whom age or weakness rendered heavy, made use of a servant in mounting on horseback; in which they imitated the Persians, with whom it was the common custom. Gracchus caused handsome stones to be placed on each side of the great roads of Italy at certain distances from one another, to help travellers to get on horseback without the assistance of any body.* I am surprised that the Athenians, expert as they were in the art of war, did not perceive that the cavalry was the most essential part of army, especially in battles; and that some of their generals did not turn their attention that way, as Themistocles did towards maritime affairs. Xenophon was well capable of rendering them a similar service in respect to the cavalry, of the importance of which he was perfectly apprised. He wrote two treatises upon this subject; one of which regards the care it is necessary to take of horses, and how to acquire a knowledge of them, and to break them; which he treats with astonishing minuteness: and the other gives instructions for training and exercising the troopers themselves; both well worth the reading of all who profess arms. the latter he states the means of placing the cavalry in honour, and lays down rules upon the art military in general, which might be of very great use to all those who are designed for the profession of arms. In I have been surprised, in running over this second treatise, to see with what care Xenophon, a soldier and a pagan, recommends the practice of religion, a veneration for the gods, and the necessity of imploring their aid upon all occasions. He repeats this maxim in thirteen different places of a tract in other respects brief enough; and rightly judging that these religious insinuations might give some people offence, he makes a kind of apology for them, and concludes the piece with a reflection which I shall repeat entire in this place. If any one, says he, wonders that I insist so much here upon the necessity of not forming any enterprise without first endeavouring to render the Divinity favourable and propitious, let him reflect, that there are in war a thousand unforeseen and hazardous conjunctures, wherein the generals, vigilant to take advantages and lay ambuscades for each other, from the uncertainty of an enemy's motions, can take no other counsel than that of the gods. Nothing is doubtful or obscure with them. They unfold the future to whomsoever they please, by the inspection of the entrails of beasts, by the sing Αναβολέως μή δεομένοις. Plut. in Gracch. p. 838. This word αναβολεὺς, signifies a servant who helped his master to mount on horseback. |