the Appendices and Notes of Mr. Mansel to Aldrich's

Logic.

To these works, as well as to Archbishop Whately's luminous Chapter on Fallacies, and to the original and suggestive work of Mr. James Mill on the Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind, the Author must, once for all, express his obligations. He has, however, endeavoured, on all disputed points, to reason out his own conclusions, feeling assured that no manual, however elementary, can be of real service to the student, unless it express what may be called the "reasoned opinions" of its author.

The great difficulty to be encountered by any writer of an English Manual of Logic is the unsettled state of our logical terminology. Many words have various significations, or are used in different senses by different writers, and often there are no recognized terms to express some distinction which it is still incumbent on the logician to notice. A fixed and sufficient terminology can, however, only be created by the habit of teaching Logic, and of carrying on our discussions on the science, in our own Language. But though, in some respects, the Latin terminology may be superior to our own, there

can be no question that the language in which men habitually think must be the fittest medium for analysing

their thoughts.

The Notes appended to the Chapters (as distinguished from the foot-notes) are designed to inform the student of any divergences from the ordinary mode of treatment, or to suggest to him further reading on topics which, if noticed at all, are only alluded to in the text. They may be omitted on the first reading.

Besides the Notes appended to the various Chapters, it is perhaps desirable that the student, if he is entirely unacquainted with logical and psychological discussions, should omit, on the first reading, the Chapters on the Relation of Logic to Psychology, on the various Kinds of Terms, on the Denotation and Connotation of Terms, on the Relation of the Predicate to the Subject of a Proposition, on Verbal and Real Propositions, on Definitions, and on Divisions and Classifications. Unfortunately, the most difficult problems which the logician has to solve occur at the outset of his task.

It is hoped that, independently of its bearing on University Studies, a short English Manual of Logic may be used with advantage in the Upper Forms of Schools,

and that it may not be without interest to the general

reader.

With reference to the present system of Examinations in Oxford, this little book is designed mainly for the use of candidates for Honours in Moderations. Το gain the requisite information on the Aristotelian Logic, they should add to it a knowledge of Trendelenburg's Elements, as well as of Appendices A, B, C, D, F, G, H to Mr. Mansel's Edition of Aldrich. A new selection from the Organon of Aristotle, preceded by an explanation of his terminology and a brief résumé of the history of ancient and scholastic Logic, would be a most valuable addition to the text-books which are at present in use.

For the Ordinary Examination in Moderations, this work, omitting the appended Notes, as well as the first Chapter of the Introduction and (with the exception of the Definitions at the end) the unavoidably tedious Chapter on the Relation of the Predicate to the Subject of a Proposition, will probably be found to be amply sufficient1. It is to be remembered, however, that

1 Even this modicum exceeds the present requirements. If, however, the student were allowed to avail himself of an English text-book divested of metaphysical language, he might fairly be expected to bring up more matter.

there are some students who can never safely dispense with oral instruction.

The Manuals of Sanderson, Wallis, Aldrich, &c., owing to the peculiar circumstances of the period in which they were written (a period which, being transitional, retained not only much of the scholastic terminology, but also much of the Realistic doctrine), have ceased to be adapted to modern instruction. The author, with some misgivings, and a keen sense of the difficulties of the task, trusts that the present work may be found usefully to occupy their place. Its propositions cannot, however, be presented in the same curt and dogmatic shape, for we have learnt to regard many portions of Logic, like many portions of the sciences whose method it claims to analyse, as fairly open to differences of opinion.

**In the Table of Contents it will be observed that the words Definitions, Divisions, Classifications, Inferences, Oppositions, Conversions, Permutations occur in place of the more ordinary forms Definition, Division, Classification, &c. The object of this change is to suggest to the student the importance of distinguishing the results from the processes by which they are gained.

Many words employed in Logic and Psychology admit of both these meanings, and it is only by prefixing the indefinite article or using the plural number, as when we speak of a definition' or 'definitions,' that we can make it plain that we mean the result and not the process. It would be very difficult in all cases to mark the distinction, but we have endeavoured to do so wherever it seemed to be of any importance."

A similar confusion in many of the terms employed in Physics has been noticed by Mr. Grove (Correlation of Forces, 5th Ed., p. 251). "Another confusion of terms has arisen, and has, indeed, much embarrassed me in enunciating the propositions put forth in these pages, on account of the imperfection of scientific language; an imperfection in great measure unavoidable, it is true, but not the less embarrassing. Thus, the words light, heat, electricity, and magnetism, are constantly used in two senses-viz. that of the force producing, or the subjective idea of force or power, and of the effect produced, or the objective phenomenon. The word motion, indeed, is only applied to the effect, and not to the force, and the term chemical affinity is generally applied to the force, and not to the effect; but the other four terms are, for want of a distinct terminology, applied indiscriminately to both."