which true street-architecture could have received. The east front of the Louvre, designed by Perrault, is one of the best examples of the style of the age. Many elegant private hotels and houses in Paris were erected at this period. A peculiarity of the style of Louis XIV. is the ornament then introduced, called Rococo (q.v.).

The classic Renaissance was completed in the beginning of the 19th century by the literal copying of ancient buildings. Hitherto, architects had attempted to apply classic architecture to the requirements of modern times; now they tried to make modern wants conform to ancient architecture. In the church of the Madeleine, Paris, for

Fig. 2.-Central Pavilion of the Tuileries:
as designed by De Lorme.

instance, a pure peripteral temple is taken as the object to be reproduced, and the architect has then to see how he can arrange a Christian church inside it! Many buildings erected during the time of the Empire are no doubt very impressive, with noble porticoes, and broad blank walls; but they are in many respects mere shams, attempts to make the religious buildings of the Greeks and Romans serve for the conveniences and requirements of the 19th century. This was found an impossibility-people came to rebel against houses where the window-light had to be sacrificed to the reproduction of an ancient portico, and in which the height of the stories, the arrangement of the doors, windows, and, in fact, all the features were cramped, and many destroyed, in order to carry out an ancient design. The result has been that this cold and servile copyism is now entirely abandoned. The French proceeded to work out

625

a free kind of Renaissance of their own, which proved itself, as the streets of Paris testify, the liveliest and most appropriate style for the street architecture of the French capital in the late 19th century.

·

In Spain the Renaissance style early took root, and, from the richness of that country at the time, many fine buildings were erected; but it soon yielded to the cold and heavy Greco-Romano' style, and that was followed by extravagances of style and ornament more absurd than any of the reign of Louis XIV. The later Renaissance of Spain was much influenced by the remnants of Saracenic art which abound in that country.

In England, as in the other countries of Europe, classic art accompanied the classic literature of the period; but, the fountain-head being at a distance, it was long before the native Gothic style gave place to the classic Renaissance. It was more than a century after the foundation of St Peter's that Henry VIII. brought over two foreign artists -John of Padua and Havenius of Cleves-to introduce the new style. Of their works we have many early examples at Cambridge and Oxford, in the later half of the 16th century. Longleat, Holmby, Wallaton, and many other country mansions, built towards the end of the 16th century, are fine examples of how the new style was gradually adopted. The course of the Renaissance in England was similar to its progress in France; it was even slower. Little classical feeling prevailed till about 1620. The general expression of all the buildings before that date is almost entirely Gothic, although an attempt is made to engraft upon them classical details. The pointed gables, mullioned windows, oriels and dormers, and the picturesque outlines of the old style are all retained long after the introduction of quasi-classic profiles to the mouldings. This style, which prevailed during the later half of the 16th century, is called Elizabethan (q.v.), and corresponds to the somewhat earlier style in France of the time of Francis I. This was followed in the reign of James I. by a similar but more extravagant style called Jacobean, of which Heriot's Hospital at Edinburgh is a good example; the fantastic ornaments, broken entablatures, &c., over the windows, being characteristic of this style, as they were of that of Henry IV. in France.

The first architect who introduced real Italian feeling into the Renaissance of England was Inigo Jones. After studying abroad he was appointed superintendent of royal buildings under James I., for whom he designed a magnificent palace at Whitehall. Of this only one small portion was executed (1619-21), which still exists under the name of the Banqueting House, and is a good example of the Italian style. Jones also erected several elegant mansions in this style, which then became more generally adopted. In the later half of the 17th century a splendid opportunity occurred for the employment of the Renaissance style after the great fire of London. Sir Christopher Wren rebuilt an immense number of churches in that style, of which St Paul's (see LONDON) was the most important. The spire of Bow Church and the interior of St Stephen's, Walbrook, are also much admired.

During the 18th century classic feeling predominated, and gradually extended to all classes of buildings. In the early part of the century Vanbrugh built the grand but ponderous palaces of Blenheim and Castle Howard, which have a character and originality of their own. To these succeeded a vast number of noblemen's mansions, designed by Campbell, Kent, the Adamses, and others. Many of these, like the contemporaneous buildings of France, are of great size and magnifi

Fig. 4. Portion of Façade of Bridgewater House. every temple in Greece. Many really successful buildings, such as St George's Hall, Liverpool, the High School and Royal Institution (Royal Scottish Academy) in Edinburgh, have been erected in this style; but they owe their effect not to their being designs well adapted to their requirements, but to the fact that they are copies from the finest buildings of antiquity. We have thus two different styles included under the head of Renaissanceviz. one in which the classic elements are subordinated to the Gothic dispositions, as is now generally understood by the expression Renaissance; and the other in which the classic elements distinctly predominate, commonly known as 'Classic.'

Sir Charles Barry was the first to break away from this thraldom, and to return to the true

system of designing buildings-namely, by so arranging their general features as not only to express the purposes they are intended to serve, but in so doing to form the decorative as well as the useful elements of the edifice.

The Travellers' Clubhouse and Bridgewater House in London are admirable specimens of his design. There are no superfluous porticoes or obstructive pediments, but a pleasing and reasonable design is produced by simply grouping the windows, and crowning the building with an appropriate cornice.

As already noticed, a similar style of domestic architecture has been worked out in France; but both there and in England there was a reaction against everything classic, and a revival of medieval architecture superseded that of classic, especially in ecclesiastical JETTE buildings. The most magnificent examples of this style are the Palace or Houses of Parliament at Westminster, and the new Law Courts.

The so-called Queen Anne style, common in recent years, is supposed to be founded on the class of design prevalent at the beginning of the 18th century. The buildings erected at that period were of a very plain and simple order, with classic cornices and details, and frequently with large windows, sometimes divided by mullions. There is occasionally a certain picturesqueness in the arrangements which has been made the most of in the modern revived style. The latter, although taking the name of Queen Anne, is far from adhering to the style of her reign, but is rather a free use of the elements of the early Renaissance or Elizabethan style. It thus combines much of the freedom of the late Gothic with classic detail, to which is added a copious use of features borrowed from the Renaissance of France and Germany. Many large structures have been erected in this style, such as the Royal Colonial Institute in London, and the new Law Courts at Birmingham. In these buildings the peculiar features of the style are visible-viz. large windows, divided by plain mullions, and a mixture of classic details and Gothic forms. The style adapts itself well to villas and smaller structures, in which the curved gablets of the dormers form prominent features.

One of

In Germany, Russia, and every country of Europe the Renaissance came to prevail in a manner similar to that above described in other countries. The picturesque castle of Heidelberg is an early example, and the Zwinger and Japanese palace at Dresden are edifices of the beginning of the 18th century. In the domestic buildings of Nürnberg. Dresden, and other towns of the north of Germany many instances occur of the picturesque application of classic detail to the old Gothic outlines. the most striking examples of the revival of classic art occurred in Bavaria during the first half of the 19th century, under the auspices of King Louis. He caused all the buildings he had seen and admired in his travels to be reproduced in Bavaria. Thus, the royal palace at Munich is the Pitti Palace of Florence on a small scale; St Mark's at Venice is imitated in the Byzantine Chapel Royal; and the Walhalla, on the banks of the Danube, is an exact copy (externally) of the Parthenon. The finest buildings of Munich are the Picture-gallery and Sculpture-gallery by Klenze, both well adapted to their purpose, and good adaptations of Italian and Grecian architecture. In Vienna and Berlin there are many examples of the revived Classic and Gothic styles, but the Germans have always understood the former better than the latter. The

RENAIX

museums at Berlin, and many of the theatres of Germany, are good examples of classic buildings. The domestic architecture of Berlin is well worthy of notice, many of the dwelling-houses being quite equal in design to those of Paris. Of the other countries of Europe the only one which deserves remark for its Renaissance buildings is Russia. St Petersburg is of all the cities of Europe the one which best merits the title of a city of palaces. From the date at which the city was founded, these are necessarily all Renaissance in character. They are nearly all the works of German or Italian architects, and are unfortunately, for the most part, in the coldest and worst style. The ornaments of the palaces are chiefly pilasters running through two stories, with broken entablatures, &c., and ornaments of the flimsiest rococo. The New Museum, by Klenze, is, however, a marked exception. In America nearly all the new buildings of importance are carried out in the Renaissance style. Many of these are of great size and striking design. The town-hall of Boston may be referred to as one of the most imposing and effective. Another conspicuous example is the townhall of Philadelphia (q.v.).

Along with architecture, during the period of the Renaissance Painting and Sculpture and all the other arts took their models from the classic remains which were so carefully sought for and studied. All ornamental work, such as carving, jewellery, and metal-work of every kind, followed in the same track. Medieval niches and pinnacles gave place to the columns and entablatures of the classic styles, and the saints of the middle ages yielded to the gods and goddesses of ancient Rome.

See the general historical works of Gregorovius, Guizot, Hallam, Lacroix, Lecky, Villari, &c., the relevant chapters in the standard histories of the different countries, especially in that of Italy, and in the Cambridge Mediaval History and Camb. Modern Hist.; also Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums (1859; 3d ed. 1893); Burckhardt, Kultur der Renaissance in Italien (1860; 8th ed. 1901); Pater, The Renaissance (1873); Palustre, La Renaissance en France (1879-95); Gebhart, Les origines de la Renaissance en Italie (1879); J. Owen, Skeptics of the Renaissance (1881, 1892); various works by Müntz, including Histoire de l'art pendant la Renaissance (1889-91); two books on the Renaissance in England by Gotch (1894, 1901); W. J. Anderson, Architecture of Renaissance in Italy (1896); works by Hannay on the Later Renaissance (1898) and by G. E. B. Saintsbury on the Earlier Renaissance (1901); various books by Monier, including Le Quattrocento (1901), by Wölfflin, including Art of Italian Renaissance (1903), and by Sandys, including Harvard Lectures (1905); Sir Sidney Lee, The French Renaissance in England (1910); Fiorentino, Studi e ritratti della Renaissance (1911); works on the French Renaissance by Blomfield (1911), W. H. Ward (1911), and A. Tilley (1918, 1922); B. Willey, Tendencies in Renaissance Literary Theory (1922); F. J. C. Hearnshaw, Social and Political Ideas of the Renaissance (1925). See the articles on the various painters and writers of the Renaissance, and those on PAINTING, REFORMATION, SCULPTURE, with the works there cited; also those on BRUNO, CAMPANELLA, ERASMUS, HUMANISTS, HUTTEN, ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE, MACHIAVELLI, MEDICI, PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA, POLITIAN, SAVONAROLA, &c.

Renaix, a town in the Belgian province of East Flanders, 25 miles by rail S. by W. of Ghent, carries on dyeing, and manufactures cotton and woollen fabrics; pop. 22,000.

Renan, ERNEST, was born at Tréguier, in the department of Côtes-du-Nord (Brittany), on the 27th February 1823, a Breton by his father's ancestry, a Gascon by his mother's. The centre of the life of Tréguier (originally a monastic village) is its minster, and to the atmosphere of the place Renan attributed in large measure his early bent to those studies which he unceasingly

To

pursued for more than half a century. His father, who was a sailor, died while he was still a child, leaving his widow in straitened circumstances, with the care of one daughter and two sons. his mother and sister Renan owed a special debt, which he expressly acknowledged in his Souvenirs d'Enfance. The young Renan gave early promise of distinction, and in 1836 he was one of the lads chosen by the Abbé Dupanloup for a place in the Catholic seminary of St Nicolas du Chardonnet, in Paris, conducted by himself on methods entirely his own, his one aim to turn out priests with the accomplishments and temper of mind that would render them effective men of the world. After three years at St Nicolas he had two years of philosophy at Issy, a branch of the great seminary of St Sulpice. Descartes adapted to Catholic orthodoxy, and the Scottish philosophy as taught by Reid, were the main subjects of study. At the conclusion of his course at Issy he was in all things, personal habits and temper of thought, a docile son of the church; though one of his teachers had already divined the essential tendency of his mind, and had plainly told him that he was not a Christian.' At St Sulpice, however, his attention was mainly turned to the study of Hebrew, and to this study, of his own accord, he added that of German. As the result of these combined studies the traditional construction of Christianity became impossible for him. Quitting St Sulpice in 1845, he abandoned all thoughts of the church as a profession. At this crisis his sister Henrietta proved his invaluable friend and consoler. In 1848 he became agrégé de philosophie, and two years later was appointed to a post in the Nationale in Paris. Successive mémoires made his department of manuscripts in the Bibliothèque name known in connection with Oriental studies, and in 1860 he was made one of a commission sent by the French government to study the remains of Phoenician civilisation. In 1861 he was chosen professor of Hebrew in the Collège de France. The emperor, inspired by the clerical party, refused to ratify his appointment, and it was not till after the fall of the imperial government (November 1870) that he was actually established in the chair. He travelled considerably in Italy, in Scandinavia, and the East in connection with special departments of research, and in 1878 was chosen member of the French Academy. Renan married a niece of the painter Ary Scheffer.

His

Of the long series of Renan's works, which by their combined learning and literary power made him the first man of letters in Europe, we mention in a summary account of his career. can here note only those which call for special work as an author began with a paper Sur les Langues Sémitiques (1847), afterwards developed into his Histoire Générale des Langues Sémitiques (1854). In his Averroès et l'Averroïsme (1852) he gave one proof among many others of his familiarity with the life and thought of the middle ages. He Études d'Histoire Religieuse (1856) and Essais de wrote frequent essays, afterwards collected in his Morale et de Critique (1859), which arrested wide attention by their grace of style and originality of suggestion. His European reputation, however, dates only from the publication of the Vie de Jésus (1863), one of the events of the century. With the Vie de Jésus also began what its author regarded as the special work of his life, the Histoire des Origines du Christianisme. In Renan's conception the history of Christianity, in the true sense of the term, is possible only from the close of the 2d century after Christ. Previous to that period materials do not exist for an adequate narrative based on data that justify a dogmatic construction of the development of Christianity. The tracing

of Christian origins, therefore, must be a work essentially tentative, and one that, justifying conjecture, calls for the finest critical faculty in him who attempts it. It was with this conception of his task that Renan wrote the series, the labour of nearly thirty years, in which he embodied his construction of the evolution of the Christian religion and theology. Of all the volumes none excited the extraordinary interest of the first. In the Vie de Jésus the combined weakness and strength of Renan's method were exaggerated to caricature on a subject of supreme and universal interest, and one, moreover, which even from the boldest critics had hitherto exacted the tacit admission of its special place in the heart of humanity. Few readers, even in France, received it without large reserves the score of good taste and right feeling, while in Britain its preciosity of sentiment and effeminate exquisiteness of manner jarred even on those who were at one with the writer in his general point of view. Of the volumes that followed the Vie de Jésus, that on St Paul and that entitled MarcAurèle et la Fin du Monde Antique are specially noteworthy, the one as assigning to the apostle a much inferior place in the history of the Christian church to that which Protestants at least have assigned him, the other for its brilliant delineation of the last stages in the life of paganism. In completion of the task he had set before him, Renan undertook what, as he himself said, should have been the natural beginning of his work, the history of the people of Israel.

on

Besides this main product of his genius and industry, Renan from time to time published other volumes, some, such as Questions Contemporaines and La Réforme Intellectuelle et Morale, on the current questions of the day, and others, such as the Dialogues Philosophiques and Drames Philosophiques, on the profounder questions of human life and destiny. In 1883 appeared Souvenirs d'Enfance, in which he traced in his most delicate vein the influences that worked in him during his childhood and early youth. As a supplement, Renan published L'Avenir de la Science (1890), conceived and written in 1848. Taken with the preface of 1890, this book throws a vivid light at once on the history of its author's opinions and on that double nature he inherited from his Celtic and Gascon ancestry. In his earlier work sentiment is often strained beyond the limit of virile feeling; his later writings often reveal the Gascon by unseasonable persiflage and epicurean suggestion. He died 2d October 1892, and was buried in the Panthéon.

Renan's Histoire des Origines du Christianisme consists of the following volumes: Vie de Jésus (1863), Les Apôtres (1866), Saint Paul (1867), L'Antéchrist (1873), Les Evangiles et la Seconde Génération Chrétienne (1877), L'Eglise Chrétienne (1878), Marc-Aurèle et la Fin du Monde Antique (1880), Index général (1883); its great complement, Histoire du Peuple d'Israel (5 vols. 18871894). Other writings are: Le Livre de Job (1859); Le Cantique des Cantiques (1860); L'Ecclésiaste (1882); Histoire Générale des Langues Sémitiques (1854); Mission de Phenicie (1865-74); Etudes d'Histoire Religieuse (1856); Nouvelles Études d'Histoire Religieuse (1884); Averroes et l'Averroisme (1852); Essais de Morale et de Critique (1859); Mélange d'Histoire et de Voyages (1878); Questions Contemporaines (1868); La Réforme Intellectuelle et Morale (1871); De l'Origine du Langage (1863); Dialogues Philosophiques (1876); Drames Philosophiques, including Caliban, L'Eau de Jouvence, Le Prêtre de Némi, L'Abbesse de Jouarre (1888); Souvenirs d'Enfance et de Jeunesse (1883); Discours et Conférences (1887);

L'Avenir de la Science (1890); the Hibbert Lectures (1880), delivered in London, on The Influence of the Institutions, Thought, and Culture of Rome on Christianity; with Victor Leclercq, Histoire Littéraire de France au XIV Siècle; Ma Saur Henriette (1895; trans. as Brother

RENFREWSHIRE

and Sister, 1896); Ernest Renan-Henriette Renan : Nouvelles Lettres intimes (1923).

For critical estimates, see Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux Lundis (tome ii.); Schérer, Études sur la Littérature Contemporaine (tome viii.); G. Monod, Les Maîtres de l'Histoire (1895). See also Grant Duff's In Memoriam (1893); Lives by Séailles (1895), Mary Duclaux (1897), W. Barry (1905); R. Allier, La Philosophie d'E. Renan (1906); Lockroy's Au Hasard de la Vie (1913); Guerard's French Prophets of Yesterday (1913); L. F. Mott's Study (1921), and Pommier's (1923); also Girard and Moncel, Bibliographie (1923).

stands on the Kiel Canal, 19 miles W. of Kiel, Rendsburg, a town of Sleswick-Holstein, and has manufactures of cotton, machinery, and chemicals; pop. 16,000.

René I., surnamed 'the Good,' titular king of Naples and Sicily, the son of Louis II., Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence, was born in 1409 at Angers. He failed in his efforts to make good his claim to the crown of Naples, gave his daughter in marriage to Henry VI. of England (1445), and ultimately devoted himself to Provençal poetry and agriculture at Aix in Provence, where he died regretted in 1480. See ANJOU, and a monograph by Edgcumbe Staley (1913).

Renfrew, an ancient royal burgh, the county town of Renfrewshire, stands on the south bank of dates from 1313, and Robert III. made it a royal the Clyde, 6 miles below Glasgow. Its first charter burgh in 1397, but it was a burgh at least as early as the reign of David I. (1124-53). A knoll called Castlehill commemorates the site of Renfrew castle, Anciently the chief port on the Clyde, it has the original seat of the royal house of Stewart. still a small harbour. The principal industries are shipbuilding, water-tube boiler-making, and For parliamentary purposes up engineering. to 1918, it formed one of the Kilmarnock group of burghs. Pop. (1841) 2013; (1891) 6777; (1921) 14,161.

Renfrewshire, a county in the south-west of Scotland, bounded on the N. by the river and firth of Clyde, on the E. by Lanarkshire, and on the S. and W. by Ayrshire. Though only twenty-eighth of the Scottish counties in size, it stands fifth in population. It is 31 miles long by 13 broad, and contains about 240 sq. m. or 151,431 acres, including water and foreshore. Pop. (1801) 78,056 ; (1851) 161,091; (1881) 263,374; (1911) 314,574; (1921) 298,904. The surface is irregular: besides the low lands fringing the Clyde, there are three principal valleys, those of the Gryfe, the Black Cart, and the White Cart, with upland pastures and ranges of hills, the highest point being the Hill of Stake (1711 feet) on the borders of Ayrshire.

Agriculture and the breeding of horses and cattle are carried on with success; dairy-farming is largely practised, owing to the proximity of large towns. Rather less than two-thirds of the whole extent is arable, mainly in pasture or grass crops. The minerals are coal, iron-stone, shale, and lime. Besides mining and agriculture, numerous industries flourish in various parts of the county, the principal being the manufacture of thread, cotton, and chemicals, print and bleach works, shipbuilding, engineering, distilling, and sugar-refining. Renfrewshire is well supplied with roads and railways, and has two considerable ports-Greenock and Port-Glasgow. It is divided for administrative purposes into two wards, Upper and Lower, There are two parliamentary divisions, eastern and with sheriffs-substitute at Paisley and Greenock. western, each returning one member. From time to time parts of Renfrewshire have been detached and added to Glasgow. The chief towns, besides those mentioned, are Renfrew, the county town