PARALLEL HISTORY OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND. PERIOD OF ROMAN CONQUEST. FRANCE (GAUL). IN the earliest times of the history of the country then called Gaul, the inhabitants were Kelts. The Gael evidently were there first, and left their name to the country, but the Cymry were the staple of the inhabitants when they became known to civilized nations. Their religion was druidical, their government merely the clan system, but they were more civilized than the insular Cymry from contact with the Greek colonies of Massilia and its dependencies on the Mediterranean coast. The Belge had effected a settlement in the marshy lands about the mouths of the Rhine and Scheldt. B.C. 154.-The Greek colonies of Massilia called on Rome for assistance against the Gauls. The Romans, responding to the call, founded the colonies now called Aix and Narbonne, and gradually extended their territory so far as to own a region there called Provincia, now Provence. B.C. 113.-The Cimbri and Teutones, a mixed mass of Kelts and Teutons, poured into Gaul from the west, and were eagerly welcomed by all the Gauls, who dreaded the advance of Roman aggression. They routed two consuls and overspread Provincia. B.C. 103.-They were defeated at Aqua Sextiæ (Aix) by Caius Marius, pursued into Italy, and annihilated at Vercelli. Provincia became thoroughly Romanized. B.C. 61.—The Teuton tribe of Schwaben (Suevi, Swabians), under a prince or Heerfürst (Ariovistus), made their way across the Rhine. The duan chief Divitiacus came to implore the aid of Rome. E.C. 58.-Julius Cæsar drove back a Keltic immigration from Helvetia, demolished the Schwaben invaders, and gradually extended the Roman dominion over the whole of Gaul, overcoming the gallant resist ENGLAND (BRITAIN). WHEN the history of Britain begins to become known, the island was occupied by Kelts. These seem to have consisted of two principal nations-the Gael, taller, ruder, wilder, inhabiting the north and far west; the Cymry, more cultivated, living under the Druid system of religion, and apparently trading for tin with the Phoenicians. The Belge, probably a mixed nation of Kelts and Teutons, were beginning to make settlements on the eastern coast. In all these the nation was divided into clans, with the chieftainship of each inherent in one family. They sometimes coalesced under some chief of superior influence or talant. Julius Cæsar (B. c. 55) made his first landing in Britain, and the next year (B.C. 54) defeated the chief Caswallon, penetrated into the interior beyond B 2 FRANCE (GAUL). ance of FEAR CEIN CE DO RIGH (Vercingetorex), the chieftain of the Arverni (Auvergne), and making him prisoner B.C. 55, to be exhibited in a triumph at Rome; and the whole of Gaul became a Roman province, the principal cities were colonized, the Latin language adopted, and many of the natives became thoroughly Romanized, B. C. 51. PERIOD OF THE ROMAN DOMINION. ENGLAND (Britain). the Thames, made a treaty, brought away hostages, and returned to Gaul. A.D. 69.-The first revolt against Roman power took place under Civilis, a Belgian trained in the Roman army. It was put down and punished with great severity. A. D. 77.-Christians, apparently from Asia Minor, were planting the Church in Gaul, and making numerous converts at Lyons and Vienne. A dreadful persecution of the Christians broke out (A.D. 177) at Lyons and Vienne, in which many were barbarously tortured in the Amphitheatre. Irenæus, one of the Fathers of the Church, became Bishop of Lyons, but was massacred in a tumult in the streets, in the first year of the Emperor Severus (A.D. 202). The Emperor Claudius renewed the attempt to subdue Britain, A.D. 43. Colonies were established at Verulamum and Londinum; and the brave Silurian chief Caradog (Caractacus) was brought as a prisoner to Rome. The Isle of Mona was devastated by the Roman governor Suetonius in the endeavour to destroy Druidism, A.D. 59. In the meantime, Boddwy (Boadicea), widow of the chief of the Iceni, suffered insults from the Romans which roused her to revenge. The barbarous tribes under her massacred the colonists at Verulam and Camulodunum, but on Suetonius's arrival were defeated, and Boddwy committed suicide. Agricola became proconsul A.D. 77, and completed the subjection and civilization of southern Britain; after which he attempted (A. D. 84) the conquest of Caledonia, the northern part, but was bravely resisted by Galgacus, and could obtain no footing farther north than the Grampian Hills. Gaul and Britain were formed into a single Roman province, which was placed under a governor, known as the Præfect of Gaul, and possessed of immense power. All the chief cities had the privileges of Roman colonies, and a municipal government; and The Emperor Hadrian built (A.D. 120) the ramall the inhabitants of any distinction were Roman part from the Solway to the German Ocean as a citizens, and assimilated themselves to Roman cus-barrier against the Caledonians, giving up the more toms. Latin was the prevailing tongue, though northern conquests; but Lollius Urbicus, the prætor, Greek was studied as an accomplishment. The old drove the enemy back, and built a lesser wall from Keltic religion was proscribed, the Roman deities the Forth to the Clyde, A.D. 138. were adored as belonging to the State religion, but Christianity was making progress. The great host of Teutonic tribes in Germany were becoming more restless, and continually threatening the eastern border of the Kelto-Roman province of Gaul, both by land and sea. The power of the Roman Empire rapidly decayed, and no efficient government reached the provinces, Severus repaired the wall of Hadrian A.D. 202, and called it by his own name, He died at York A. D. 211. The Caledonians, who appear to have been Cymry, were beset about this time (A.D. 272) by Scots FRANCE (GAUL). Magnentius, a soldier, was proclaimed emperor at Autun A.D. 350. Constantius asked the aid of the Teutons, who killed Magnentius in battle, but horribly devastated Gaul. Julian, the Emperor's nephew, became præfect, fixed his head-quarters at Paris, and ably repressed the Franks. Julian became emperor A.D. 360, left Gaul, and was killed in Persia A.D. 362. St. Martin of Tours was completing the conversion of Western Gaul. The Kelts had become so entirely moulded by Rome that without Roman direction they were unable to act. A.D. 406.-The whole of Gaul was overrun, by the Franks in the north, and the Burgundians towards the east, as well as by other savage tribes, who plundered but did not occupy. though they continued to be kept in order by the Carausius, either a Briton or Belgian by birth, was CONSTANTIUS Chlorus was appointed Cæsar A.D. Maximus, another soldier, obtained A.D. 381 the empire of Gaul and Britain, where he reigned till he was defeated and beheaded by THEODOSIUS the Great, A.D. 388. Under this able and excellent prince there was comparative order till his death, A.D. 393; when the incapacity of his son Honorius left the whole Western Empire a prey to the great Teutonic invasion, which was itself the effect of the pressure of Slavonic nations pouring in from Asia. All A. D. 400.-The great invasion of the Roman Empire struck Rome at the heart, and left little power of succouring more distant possessions, and the custom of taking one savage tribe as an ally to drive back another only served to give the first a footing. Aëtius, an able Roman general, drove back the the Kelts had become either helpless or unable to Franks beyond the Rhine, A.D. 423. Wehrmund help themselves for want of discipline and union, and (Pharamond), called the first of the Frank kings, is the only remaining vigour was in a few Romans, while said to have fought with him. Hloter was in alliance the advancing Teutons were full of the fury and energy with him, A.D. 448. Meerwig (who gave his name of a young nation. to the dynasty) was adopted as a son by Aëtius, who ENGLAND (BRITAIN). or Gael from Ireland. Many bloody wars ensued, known as those of the Scots and Picts (though who these last were is only conjectured, and there is no guidance from history). Allectus reigned three years in Britain, but was killed at York, A.D. 300. Britain suffered much from the invasions of the Picts and Scots from the north, and of the Saxons from the eastern coast. Various pretenders to empire unworthy of record rose and fell, and there was no national resistance to either northern or eastern foes. The Picts and Scots, a reflex wave of Cymry and Gael, seem to have been more hated and dreaded by the Romanized Britons than were the Saxons. A. D. 429.-St. Patrick converted the Irish to the Christian faith. A.D. 441.-The doleful appeal to "Aëtius, thrice consul, the groans of the Britons," was sent in vain. St. Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre, being on a mission B 2 FRANCE. used the Franks to fight the battles of the Roman Empire with the still ruder barbarians. The Teutonic nations poured into the Empire in every direction, and gradually changed the whole face It is scarcely worth while to trace the various of it. They were, like the Kelts, in tribes, but each inroads of tribe after tribe who ravaged Gaul, and tribe had a royal family from which the king was chased one another out again, without effecting a always chosen. He decided only by the consent of permanent settlement. The chief of these were the his freemen, who had great power. The home posBurgundians, who were the first to establish them-sessions of each tribe were held in common, but the selves in burgs, in the country between the Alps spoil of war (veh, fee, originally cattle), whether in and the Rhone, and were already Christians; and the gold or lands, was apportioned on condition of service Franks, who came over the Rhine, and whose royal to the king. Their language was Teuton, divided line was properly called the Salic (from the river into the high and low German dialects; their character Yssel), but is also known as the Meerwings (sons of less fiery and more capable of steadiness and perseveMeerwig), and as the Long-haired, because unshorn rance than the Keltic. Their religion owned Odin, locks were a token of royal descent. Provence and Frey, and Thor as the chief deities, and was a good the greater part of the south, being full of strong deal confused between the worship of nature and of cities, served as a plundering ground for forays, and ancestry, since Odin was the head of the " Asagods,' was never regularly conquered, and the old Cymric or summer gods, and all the royal lines were traced to province of Armorica, or Brittany, which had scarcely him. A state of retribution after death was acknowbeen Romanized, remained free and Keltic. ledged, in which courage had the highest reward and cowardice the worst doom. In 458, HILPERIK I. was king of the Salian Franks. Syagrius was owned at Paris as king of the Romans, by the remnant of Latinized Gauls. HLODWIG I. (Clovis) came to the chieftainship in 481, defeated Syagrius at Soissons, and obtained Paris in 486; married Hlodhild (Clotilda) of the Burgundian line, defeated the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 496, became a Christian, and founded the French monarchy; was created a patrician by the Eastern Emperor Anastasius, in 505. His sons, Theuderik, Hlodmir, Hildebert, HLOTER, divided his kingdom, and conquered the Burgundians, in 511. Deaths and murders left HLOTER sole king, in 553, till he died, in 561, and the kingdom was again divided between his sons: HILPERIK, king of Neus Oster-rik (Neustria); SIGEBERT, king of Auster-rik (Austrasia); and HARIBERT, king of Paris. The two first were noted for their wives-Fredegund, a slave, and Brynhild, a Gothic princess of Spain. The Western Empire of Rome was overthrown in 476, but the machinery of Roman government continued in the municipal towns, which had walls strong enough to hold out against the barbarians. There being more of these towns in Gaul than in Britain, the Romano-Keltic element remained far more strong in the first. The rule of St. Benedict was brought into France by St. Maur, in 543, and did much to reform the irregularities of the monkish clergy. Everywhere, except in the cities, and where some Roman civilizaHaribert died in 567 and Paris fell to HIL- tion survived, there was gross and horrible barbarism, ENGLAND (Britain). to the Britons in Wales, terrified the Picts by the resolution and the shouts of the Welsh neophytes, and won the Hallelujah victory. Aëtius summoned the last legions from Britain in 451. According to most uncertain history, a national spirit revived, and Vortigern was elected in 454 Pendragon of Britain, and asked the aid of Hengist the Jute to repel the Scots, rewarding him with the Isle of Thanet. In 476, Aurelius Ambrosius seems to have made a brave resistance to the continual advance of the Saxons, but to have been gradually overpowered and forced to give way before them, and the kingdom of Kent was established. In 490, CERDIC brought a colony of Saxons, who formed the kingdom of Wessex, or of the West Saxons. Tradition and uncertain history declare him to have been opposed for many years by Arthur, who fought for every foot of land, but was killed by his own revolted nephew, in 542. Within this period the kingdoms of Essex (East Saxons), Sussex (South Saxons), Deerland (Deira), Bearland (Beornia), and Marchland (Mercia), were established by the Saxons, also called Angles; the Kelts were almost obliterated, except in Wales, Cornwall, and Strathclyde, where they continued independent. The Saxon population almost entirely displaced the Keltic. This period is called in English History the Heptarchy, from there being usually an average of seven petty kingdoms. The most able prince was called Bretwalda, and ruled in some measure over the rest. ÆTHELBERHT, king of Kent, was |